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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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ENGLISH 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS 



SIMPLIFIED. 



DESIGNED FOR USE IN COMMON SCHOOLS, HIGH 
SCHOOLS, AND NORMAL SCHOOLS. 






• 



MRS. M/D. L. HAYNIE, 

Professor of Modern Languages, Illinois State Normal University. 




CHICAGO r 
GEO. SHERWOOD & CO 



V 



-f£m> 



Copyright, 1884, 

By Geo. Sherwood & Co. 

Chicago. 



To 

MY PUPILS, 

who ake now in america, europe, and the 

isles of the sea, 

This Book is Dedicated 

BY THE AUTHORESS, 

as a token of affectionate remembrance, 

for their unvarying kindness, and full 

appreciation of her labors 

AMONG THEM. 



PREFACE 



This book appears before the public, in answer to 
many calls. 

For years my pupils, and, also, teachers whom I have 
never known personally, have urged me to embody my 
teaching in book form, so that they could put into the 
hands of their own pupils, a text-book, attractive, easy of 
comprehension, and at the same time scholarly. 

Cheerfully, but not without labor, the task has been 
performed, and the book is now sent forth on its mission, 
without a misgiving of its success, wherever it may happen 
to find a welcome. 

Syntax and Analysis are treated together, as they are 
so closely related, it is difficult to treat them separately. 

In simplifying these difficult subjects, no element has 
been omitted, but into the work have entered deep 
thought, and the result of the careful and extended re- 
search of years. 

A very long experience in teaching modern languages, 
has enabled me to understand the difficulties to be met 
with at every step, when undertaking the study of, even 
the mother-tongue, and from this experience has resulted 
the plan of this work. 

Step by step the pupil is led from the simple to the 
abstruse. 

5 



PREFACE. 

TIh> simple sentence is treated in full; first, without 

sjij modifier, and afterwards, with the modifiers, in me- 

thodioal order, before the complex sentence is introduced; 

and tin- complex Bentenoe is exhaustively treated, before 

impound Bentenoe is introduced. 

Abundant and full analyses are given as models; and 
no kind <>!' sentence is omitfo d. 

Tlir usr> of tin' verb Be y tin' copulative verbs, and 
transitive and intransitive verbs, arc fully explained, but 
no special reference is made to auxiliary verbs, as they are 
fully treated of in my Etymology, soon to be published. 

The hook should not be put into the hands of any who 
have not a fair knowledge of Etymology; for, in order to 
construct sentences, a knowledge of words and their uses 
--a rv. 

Thanks are due to the grammars in whose companion- 
ship 1 have lived from my childhood; and to the kind 
friends win.-,, commendatory words have encouraged me 
all along the way. 

Martha I). L. IIavnik. 
Illiti" nial University, 

M •!> 22, J 684. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Syntax, — Definitions and Explanations, - - 9-12 

Elements op the Sentence ; Sentences Classified by 

use and by structure, - - - - 13-18 

Analysis Defined, ------ 19 

The Simple Sentence in all its Forms, and with all 

the Modifiers Belonging to it, - - - 19-91 

Rules of Syntax, ------ 92-94 

Rules of Analysis, ----- 94-96 

The Clause Element, ----- 97-105 

Complex Sentences. ----- 105-202 

Adjective Clauses, ----- 106-126 

Objective Clauses, -^ 127-135 

Adverbial Clauses, ----- 136-202 

Abridged Propositions, - 202-208 

Compound Sentences, .... - 209-243 

Condensed or Partially Compound Sentences, - 243-248 

Idiomatic Constructions, ----- 149-150 

Models for Analysis, Outline Analysis, and Exer- 
cise upon Exclamatory Sentences, - - 251-271 



SYNTAX. 



The division of grammar which treats of sen- 
tence-making is called Syntax. 

The word Syntax is derived from two Greek words, 
syn, together, and taxis, arrangement. 

Sentences are composed of words, therefore : 

Syntax is the correct use, and the methodical ar- 
rangement of words in the construction of sentences. 

False Syntax is the incorrect use, or the faulty 
arrangement of words in the construction of a sentence. 

A sentence is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

A thought is a collection of ideas making complete 
sense in the mind, before it is expressed. 

An idea is a mental picture. 

Every sentence must contain at least one propo- 
sition. 

A proposition consists of a combination of words, 
forming a statement. 

In a proposition, two terms are necessary: 

1.— Subject. 
2.— Predicate. 

Therefore : A proposition is the combination of a sub- 
ject and a predicate. 

(9) 



10 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The Subject of a proposition is the word, or words, 
used to represent that of which something is said or af- 
firmed. 

The Predicate of a proposition is the word, or 
toords, used to represent that which is said or affirmed of 
the subject. 

Kx.—Rain falls. 

In this proposition, the word llain represents that 
about which something is said or affirmed, therefore it is 
the subject, or first term of the proposition. 

The subject must be a noun or a pronoun, or so?ne- 
thing used as such. 

A symbol, a figure, a letter, a phrase or a 

clause, may be used to represent that about which some- 
thing is said, and thus become the subject of a proposition. 

A phrase (as a grammatical term), consists of a prep- 
osition and its object, or an infinitive, with the sign to, 
either expressed or understood. 

A clause is the combination of a subject and a predi- 
cate (a proposition) used as an element of a sentence. 

Ex. 1. — Mary sings. 
2. — I£e reads. 

3. (- is the sign of Addition. 

4. — 7 is a figure. 
5. — H is a letter. 

6 — To retire from business is his intention. 
7. — That you are so careless surprises me. 

There are many complete sentences which contain 
neither a noun nor & pronoun. 

Such sentences have for their subject, either a phrase or 
clause, used substantively. 



SYNTAX. 1 1 

Ex. — To submit now would be humiliating. 
That to live happily is not impossible 1ms 

been proved positively, and very frequently. 

The simple or grammatical subject is the 

word, phrase or clause taken alone. 

The complex or logical subject is the icord, 
phrase or clause taken with the modifiers. 

In the following sentence : 

An industrious, prudent boy will succeed, the word boy 
is the simple or grammatical subject, and the words, An 
industrious, prudent boy is the complex or logical subject. 

The Predicate must contain a verb. No other part of 
speech can take its place ; for no other part of speech has 
the power to make an assertion. 

It is frequently the case, however, that other words, 
called attributes of the subject, combine with the verb, 
to form the grammatical predicate. (See Uses of 
the Verb Be, page 19.) 

The simple or grammatical predicate is the 

verb, or the verb and the attribute taken alone. 

The complex or logical predicate is the simple 

predicate taken with its modifiers. 

Ex. — The redbreast loves to build and warble there. — 
Gray. 

In this sentence loves, is the simple predicate ; and 
loves to build and warble there, is the complex or logical 
predicate. 

A finite verb must be used in the predicate, as neither 
the infinitive nor the participle has the power to make an 



12 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Both the infinitive and the participle may be used, 
however, as attributes. 

Ex. — He is to be educated in Boston. 

In this sentence is, is the finite verb, used to make the 
assertion ; to be educated is the passive infinitive of the 
verb educate, used as attribute. (See Infinitive used as 
attribute.) 

The participle is used as a verbal attribute in the 
progressive form of the verb, and in the perfect tenses. 
Ex. — The sun is vising. The sun has risen* 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or 
clauses of which it is composed. 

The elements of a sentence are divided into: 

1.— Principal elements. 

2. — Subordinate elements. 

The principal elements are the subject and the 
predicate. 

The subject and the predicate are called principal ele- 
ments, because no sentence can be formed without them ; 
and all subordinate elements depend upon them. 

The subordinate elements are those which de- 
pend upon and modify the principal elements. 
The subordinate elements are: 

1 — The Adjective element. 

2. — The Objective elememt. 

3. — The Adverbial element. 
All the elements are found in the following sentence: 

And little footsteps lightly print the ground. — Gray. 



ELEMENTS OP THE SENTENCE. 13 

The elements which enter into the construction of sen- 
tences are, inform, — words, phrases, or clauses. 

Each of these forms may be used as follows: 
1. — Subject, 
2. — Predicate, 
3. — Adjective Element. 
4. — Objective Element. 
5. — Adverbial Element. 

Word element — Subject and predicate. Bells ring 

Phrase element — Subject and predicate. To be is 
to exist. 

Clause element, as subject. That you are mistaken 
is certain. 

Clause element, as predicate nominative. The 
cause of his leaving was, that he was disappointed. 

Note. — The subordinate elements, also, may take any of these 
forms. 

The toord element is a single word used to express an 
idea, without the aid of a relation word. It matters not 
how many modifiers it may have, it should be called a word 
element. 

The Phrase element is a verb in the infinitive 
mode, or a preposition and its object. 

Sometimes the sign of the infinitive, the particle to, is 
omitted, and sometimes the preposition belonging 1 to the 
phrase is omitted, but in both cases the element should be 
called a phrase element. 

Note. — The term phrase is usually applied to any group of 
words which does not contain a Unite verb ; but, in the analysis of 
sentences, the term phrase should be restricted to the forms spoken of 
above. 

Independent elements are certain words or ex- 



14 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

pressions which have no grammatical relation to any sen- 
tence, or any part of a sentence, though they usually accom- 
pany a sentence. 

They are used often in exclamations, and in conversa- 
tion. 

The principal independent elements consist of expres- 
sions of emotion' the most of such are always incomplete: — 
Oh how beautiful ! 
Oh ! but to breathe the breath 
Of the cowslip and primrose sweet! — Hood. 

The nominative independent by address .• — 
Adam, where art thou! — Bible. 

The Adverbs, now, well, why: 

N~ow, what have you done! 
Well, can it be true? 
Why, you said so. 

And the Interjections . — 

Oh! Ah! Alas! What! etc. 
Other independent elements will be given hereafter. 

Independent elements should be separated from the 
sentence by a comma. 

A word, phrase or clause added to an element to vary 
its meaning is called a modifier. 

A simple element is one which is not modified. 

Ex. — Hoys run. 

A complex element is a modified element, or an 
element taken with its modifier, or modifiers. 

Ex. — Three boys run fast. 

The basis of an element is the element which is modi- 



SENTENCES CLASSIFIED BY THEIR USE. 15 

fied; boys is the basis of three boys ; and run is the basis 
of run fast. 

A compound element is one which consists of two 
or more similar elements, coOrdinately united by conjun .- 
tions, either expressed or understood. 

Ex..— Apples, peaches and pears are in market now. 

Coordinate elements do not modify each other, or 
one another, but when combined they may modify some 
other element. 

Ex. — Clear and beautiful skies looked down smilingly 
upon the landscape. 

In this sentence clear and beautiful are coordinate 
elements, making a compound adjective element ; but 
subordinate to skies, which they modify. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED BY THETR USE. 

Thouf/ht may be expressed by means of words, in 
four different ways j there are, therefore, four different 
kinds of sentences: 

1.— Declarative, 

2 . — Inte rrogative. 

3. — Imperative. 

±.—JExclamative. 

A Declarative sentence is one that makes an 
affirmation or a denial. 

Ex. — The hunters returned yesterday. 
The hunters did not return yesterday. 



16 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The hunters may return to-morrow. 

If the hunters return to-morrow, they will supply us 
'with game for the feast. 

An Interrogative sentence is used to ask a ques- 
tion. 

Ex. — Have you been to Crystal Lake to-day? 
Is it time to go home? 

Interrogative sentences are not always used to ask for 
information. 

They are sometimes used for rhetorical effect ; and they 
are then called questions of appeal. 

Ex. — Is there not a time appointed unto man to die? 
There is. 

Shall we submit to the oppression of a tyrant ? We 
shall not. 

When the question of appeal is negative, an affirmative 
answer is expected ; and when it is affirmative, a negative 
answer is expected, as will be seen above. 

An Imperative sentence is used to express a 
command, an entreaty, a petition, or a request. 

Ex. — Give ear, my people, to my law. 
Maintain the ground where thou standest. 

Note. — The relative position of the speaker and the one spoken t<> 
decides lohether the imperative sentence is a command, an entreaty, a 
petition, or a request. 

An E.rcl 'amative, or as it is commonly called, an 
exclamatovu sentence, is one used to express some 
strong emotion of pain, pleasure, astonishment, approba- 
tion, disapprobation, etc. 

Exclamative sentences are often mere fragments, not 
admitting of analysis. 



SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE. 17 

Ex. — Impossible! 
What a lovely day! 
How terrible! 

Such expressions are of the nature of the Interjection, 
therefore an exclamation point should be placed after 
them. 

When two or more different kinds are united to form 
one sentence, it is called a mixed sentence. 

Ex. — Tell me how much money you want, and I will 
give it to you. 

He said to me, do you know where the paper is pub- 
lished ? 

The first one of the sentences consists of an imperative 
proposition, and a declarative proposition ; and the second, 
of a declarative proposition, and an interrogative proposi- 
tion. Both are mixed sentences. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO 
STRUCTURE. 

Sentences are classified according to their structure 
into: 

1. — Simple sentences. 
2. — Complex sentences. 
3. — Compound sentences. 

A simple sentence consists of a single proposition. 
Ex. — Bells ring. 

A simple sentence may consist of two words only, or 
of an indefinite number of words : for both subject and 
predicate may take a great many modifiers. 

Ex. — It is a glorious land, with snowy, bold, and mag- 
nificent mountains ; deep, narrow and well wooded valleys: 



18 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

bleak plateau and slopes ; wild ravines ; clear and pictur- 
esque lakes, immense forests of birch, pine and fir trees. 

This sentence is simple, though some of the elements 
are complex, and some compound. 

Sentences of great length are sometimes difficult to 
comprehend, it is better, therefore, to separate them into 
short and simple statements. 

Brevity often adds beauty and clearness to a statement. 

A complex sentence consists of at least two propo- 
sitions, one principal, and one subordinate. 

Ex. — When the tree was cut down, two birds flew in 
circles above his head. 

The complex sentence may contain several subordinate 
clauses, and may be extended to any length desirable, as 
in the following : 

When the tree was cut down, two birds flew in circles 
above his head, uttering piercing and mournful cries, be- 
cause their nest of little fledglings was utterly destroyed. 

The parts of a complex sentence are called clauses ; 
the principal clause, and the subordinate clause. 

The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause 
by a subordinate connective. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more 
independent propositions connected by co5rdinate con- 
junctions. 

Ex. — The man cut down the tree, and a nest containing 
some beautiful little birds was utterly destroyed. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 19 



ANALYSIS. 

A-YlCblysis is the process by which the whole is re- 
solved or separated into its component elements, ov parts. 

In its application to language, analysis refers to a 
complete separation of a sentence into its elements ; and a 
careful examination of each, in its reference to the whole, 
or to some other element. 

Syntax and Analysis are so intimately related that 
they may properly be treated of together. 

As it is impossible to analyze a sentence systematically, 
or with any correctness whatever, if the construction be 
faulty, it will be necessary to require the pupil to be very 
careful in preparing original sentences for practical anal- 
ysis. 

Original sentences should be required of the pupil 
every day. 

Sentences properly constructed will separate into their 
constituent elements with ease, when the laws of analysis 
are applied. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
THE VERB BE. 

The verb Be is the life principle of language. With- 
out it, no statement can be made. 

Every verb has two distinct elements, — one is the as- 
sertive, the other, the attributive. 

When the assertive part is separated from the attrib- 
utive, the latter becomes a participle, having no power 



20 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

whatever to express a thought. The assertive element is 
the verb Be, called the copula $ it is found in all verbs, 
though not always expressed. 

In the sentence, 

Snow is falling, 

the copula and the attribute are both expressed ; is, is 
the copula, and fallinf/, the attribute. 

But they are often blended; then a new word is formed 
in which neither is seen ; just as the blending of two 
colors makes a new one, which resembles neither of the 
originals. Is falling is equivalent to falls. 

The new word is called an attributive verb ; therefore, 

The attributive verb is the one word i?i ichich both the 
copula and the attribute are blended. 

Fall, rise, come, run, etc., are attributive verbs. 

The verb Be has two uses. 

1. When used alone, it denotes existence, as, God is, 
I think, therefore, I am, i. e., I exist. Thus used, Be is 
an attributive verb. 

Such sentences are often introduced by the word there, 
which is simply a word of euphony, forming no material 
part of the sentence ; as There is a God. 

2. When used to join an attribute to the subject, it is 
called the copula. 

As a copula, or link, it may connect 
a substantive attribute; 
an adjective attribute; 
a verbal attribute. 

The adverb cannot be used as an attribute. 

Exercises. — 

1. A substantive attribute: The canarv is a bird. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 21 

2. An adjective attribute: The canary is pretty. 

3. A verbal attribute; The canary is singing. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

The simplest form of the sentence. 
God is. 

It is a proposition, — it is a combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore 
it is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence, it contains but one proposition. 

God is the subject; it is a word which represents that 
of which the being, or existence is affirmed. 

Is is the predicate; it is a word used to affirm the 
being or existence of God. 

I EXERCISE. 

I am. He was. They were. There are joys. There 
were sorrows. There was pleasure. 

The verb Be when used to denote existence is usually 
followed by an adverbial element of place; as, I am here. 
He was in town. 

Write ten sentences containing the verb Be, used to 
denote existence. 

THE VERB BE USED AS COPULA. 
The verb Be is always intransitive. 

It asserts no action whatever of the subject, therefore 
it has no power to govern. 

The noun or the pronoun following it represents the 
subject in another form, and must agree with it in all that 
they have in common. 

The subject of every finite verb must be in the ncmina- 



22 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

five case; and the noun or pronoun connected to it by the 
verb Be, must be in the nominative case also. 

The verb Be when used to connect an attribute to the 
snbject is called a copula, or link. 

RULE I. 

The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative 
case. 

RULE II. 

The noun or pronoun connected to the subject of a finite 
verb, by the copula, must be in the nominative case. 

PRACTICAL. 

Such expressions as It is him; It is her; It is them; are 
incorrect; say, It is I; It is he; It is she; It is they. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Lilies are Flowers. 

It is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

Lilies is the subject; it is that of which the attribute, 
flowers, is asserted. 

Are flowers is the predicate; it is that which is affirm- 
ed of lilies. 

Are is the copula; it is a form of the verb Be, used to 
connect the substantive attribute flowers to the subject 
lilies. 

Flowers is the substantive attribute; a word used to 
represent the class of objects to which the subject belongs. 
It agrees with the subject in person, number, and gender, 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 23 

and is also in the nominative case to agree with the sub- 
ject, according to Rule II. 

Exercises upon the verb Be, used as copula, to connect 
a substantive attribute. 

It is I. Oranges are fruit. 

It is he. Indians are savages. 

It is she. Diamonds are stones. 

It is thou. Pines are evergreens. 

It is you. Bees are insects. 

Write fifteen sentences to illustrate Rule II. 

RULE III. 

The adjective connected by the copula to the subject 
must represent some characteristic property of the subject. 

PRACTICAL. 

Great care should be taken to avoid the use of an ad- 
jective in the predicate, which represents a quality or a 
condition which, from the nature of the subject, could not 
belong to it. 

Careless as well as ignorant speakers often violate Rule 
III. by using such expressions as, — It is awful, It is splen- 
did, It is nice, when in reality the object represented by 
it, could not, from its nature, possess an element of awe, or 
splendor, and the attribute nice is predicated of almost ev- 
ery object under the sun, whether small or great. 

Teachers should not regard this as a matter of small 
importance, but should promptly and persistently call the 
attention of the pupil to his mistake, and aid him in acquir- 
ing a correct habit in the use of the predicate adjective. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Lilies are Beautiful. 

It is a proposition; it is a combination of a subject and 
a predicate. 



24 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

It is the expression of a thought in words ; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

Lilies is the subject; it is a word which represents 
that of which the attribute, beautiful, is asserted. 

Are beautiful is the predicate; it is that which is 
asserted of the subject. 

Are is the copula; it is the form of the verb Be, used to 
connect the adjective attribute, beautiful, to the subject, 
lilies. 

Beautiful is the adjective attribute, a word used to 
represent a quality that is natural to the subject, lilies, and 
agrees with it according to Rule III. 

EXERCISE I. 

The verb Be used to connect an adjective attribute to 
the subject. 

Winds were cold. Jewels are valuable. 

Snow is white. Thou art merciful. 

Apples are sour. Mary is careful. 

Job was patient. John is faithful. 

Water is clear. Fawns are graceful. 

Write ten sentences to illustrate Rule III. 

KULE IV. 

The verbal attribute connected to the subject by the 
verl) Be, must represent some action or state natural to the 
subject. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Lilies are growing. 

It is a proposition ; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words ; therefore it 
is a sentence. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 25 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

Lilies is the subject ; it is that about which the action, 
groioing, is affirmed. 

Are groioing is the predicate; it is that which is as- 
serted of the subject. 

Are is the copula ; it is a form of the verb Be used to 
connect a verbal attribute to the subject. 

Groioing is the verbal attribute; a word used to repre- 
sent an action that is natural to the subject, with which it 
agrees according to Rule IV. 

PRACTICAL. 

Do not predicate an action of the subject which it can 
not perform, or a state which is not natural to it. 

Say the lark is singing, not the lark is cooing / the boy 
is lying on the ground, not, the boy is laying on the 
ground, when reference is made to his being prostrate on 
the ground ; he is sitting in a chair, not he is setting in a 
chair. 

EXERCISE II. 

The verb Me used to connect a verbal attribute to the 
subject. 

Bells are ringing. Eagles are screaming. 

Ships were sailing. Doves were cooing. 

Snow is falling. Thou art sighing. 

Ice is melting. He is laughing. 

Boys were skating. Lions were roaring. 

The copula is used also to connect to the subject a 
passive participle, which is a verbal attribute used to 
represent an action received by the subject. The copula 
and this attribute combined form the passive voice of the 
verb. The copula and the verbal attribute should be 
parsed together as one verb. 

Ex. — John is respected. 



26 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Note — The infinitive To Be, used to connect the attributice ob- 
ject of a verb or a preposition to the direct object, will be treated <>l 
in connection with the Double Object. 

Care has been taken to present only the simplest form 
of the sentence, with no modifiers whatever. 

Note. — Some authors, very few, however, have attempted to 
justify the use of an objective after Be, saying that the construction 
is a 'genuine idiom of the English, formed on the analogy of the 
French C" est mot, etc. 

The etc. remains a mystery to the pupil unacquainted with the 
French language ; but he is impressed with the notion that it con- 
tains weighty matter in favor of this usage. 

The fact is, that in the French language there are four construc- 
tions in which the dative form of the pronoun is used in the place of 
the nominative form, but the change of form does not change I In- 
case of the pronoun. 

The nominative singular of the personal pronouns in the French 
language is : 

First person, je, I. 
Second person, tit., thou. 
Third person, U, he. 
But, in the four cases to which reference has been made, je becomes 
moi, tu becomes tot, and il becomes lui. The plurals change form, 
also, in the same way. 

The four constructions are the following : 

1. When the pronoun is used as a substantive attribute, as c' est 
moi, it is I. 

2. When the subject is compound, as lui et moi, nous apprenona 
le francais, he and I study French. 

3. When used witli plus que to denote comparison of inequality, 
ssje suis plusjeune que lui, I am younger than he. 

4. When used to answer questions, as qui a fait cela? — moi, who 
has done that? — I. 

If the expression, it is me, is a correct translation of e'est moi, 
then him and me are learning French, is a correct translation of lui 
et moi nous apprenom le francais ; I am younger than Mm, is a cor- 
rect translation of je suis plus jeune que lui. and who has done that? 
me, is a correct translation of qui a fait cela? moi. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 2? 

The advocates of this objective form after Be, are careful not to 
go beyond the first example, including the others under the head of 
etc. 

The authors of the Frencn grammars are the highest authority 
in the matter, and they invariably translate these dative forms into 
the English, as nominatives. 

In some of the grammars, too, the forms, moi, toi, lui, etc., are 
given in the declension of the personal pronouns as second forms of 
the nominative. — See "Ann's French Method," page 106. 



THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE USED AS ATTRIBUTE. 

The prepositional phrase is often used as attribute, to 
denote some quality or condition of the subject. 

In this use, it is equivalent to an adjective, and, when 
treated as a whole, should be disposed of as an adjective. 

It is a separable phrase, however, and each word may 
be parsed separately. 

This construction is somewhat troublesome, from the 
fact that there are two connectives, — the copula and the 
preposition. 

Ex. — He is above reproach. 

According to the best authors, the copula is used to 
connect the entire phrase to the subject, just as it is used 
to connect a single word. 

The preposition, if used as a relation word in such con- 
struction, which is doubtful, shows the relation of its 
object to the subject. 

In analysis, however, it is better to regard the phrase 
as inseparable, for such expressions are always weakened 
by analysis. 

This form of the adjective attribute is very com in on, 
perhaps because it denotes the property or condition of 



28 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

the subject, with greater intensity, and, also, with more 
precision than the adjective. 

It is frequently the case that no adjective in the lan- 
guage can be found to convey the exact meaning given by 
the phrase. 

In the sentence, He is above reproach, the phrase, 
above reproach, has no exact equivalent. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

We are in trouble. 

It is a proposition ; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words, therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence ; it contains but one proposition. 

We is the subject; it is a word which represents that 
of which the condition, in trouble, is asserted. 

Are is the copula; it is a form of the verb Be, used 
to connect the adjective attribute, in trouble, to the sub- 
ject We. 

In trouble is the adjective attribute; it is a phrase 
used to represent a condition that is natural to the subject, 
and agrees with it, according to Rule III. 

EXERCISE I. 

The Phrase used as Attribute. 

He is above reproach. They are in harmony. 

That is out of the question. John is without friends. 

I am in haste. They are in despair. 

Mary is at leisure. You are at rest. 

He is beneath contempt. James is out of humor. 

Write fifteen sentences to illustrate prepositional phrase 
as attribute. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 29 

THE INFINITIVE USED AS ATTRIBUTE. 

The infinitive phrase is often used as the attribute of a 
subject, and forms, with the copula, the grammatical pre- 
dicate. 

When thus used it denotes: 

1. Something that ought to be. 

Ex. — Lessons are to be studied. 

2. An equivalent expression. 

Ex. — To be is to exist. 

3. What is settled. 

Ex. — She is to teach. 

4. What is expected. 

Ex. — He is to return. 

5. What is possible. 

Ex. — Gold is to be found. 

6. What is required. 

Ex. — You are to go. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Wendell Phillips is to Lecture. 

It is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It contains but one proposition; therefore it is a simple 
sentence. 

Wendell Phillips is the subject ; it is that about 
which to lecture is affirmed. 

7s is the copula; a form of the verb Be, used to con- 
nect the attribute, to lecture, to the subject. 

To lecture is an infinitive, used as attribute, to denote 



30 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

something that is expected of the subject, and it belongs 
to the subject. 

In this use, standard authors call the infinitive a sub- 
stantive attribute; but, like the infinitive in all its uses, it 
retains the verbal signification, and may be modified as a 
verb. 

EXERCISE II. 

The Infinite used as Attribute. 

Parents are to be honored. To obey is to enjoy. 

To exterminate is to destroy. Teachers are to be respected. 

[ am to go. Rulers are to be obeyed. 

Pearls are to be found. The house is to rent. 

Horses were to be sold. He is to preach. 

Violets are to be seen. Mary is to sing. 

What the infinitive denotes, cannot always be deter- 
mined upon, easily, without joining to it some adverbial 
modifier. In the sentence, Pearls are to be found, the 
infinitive is used to denote something possible, as, Pearls 
are to be found, sometimes, in the rivers. 



THE COPULATIVE VERB. 



The attribute of a proposition, whether substantive, ad- 
jective, or verbal, must agree with the subject when joined 
to it by a copulative vevb. 

A verb of complete predication is one which, in itself, 
indicates, clearly, what it asserts of the subject. 

In the sentence, God is, it requires no effort of the 
mind to understand that the fact of the existence of the 
subject is meant. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 3] 

In the sentence, John sleeps, the verb conveys to the 
mind the state of the subject ; and in the following : he 
goes, he runs, he writes, etc , the peculiar kind of action 
asserted of the subject, by the verb in each sentence, is 
definitely expressed. 

But it has been already shown that the verb Be, when 
it is not used to denote existence, requires the help of 
another word, to enable it to make sense, and that it then 
performs the office of a copula, or link, to join the attribute 
to the subject. 

It is, in reality, the copula proper; but there are other 
verbs that resemble it in this respect ; therefore they are 
called copulative verbs. 

The greater number of these, however, are in their 
common use, verbs of full, or complete predication ; and 
it is only in a peculiar use that they join an attribute to 
the subject. 

In the sentence, he seems, the verb taken alone means 
nothing ; but, in he seems a beggar, he seems sick, he seems 
determined, the added word, in each case, completes the 
predication. 

The infinitive form of Be is usually understood after 
become, seem, and others. 

Ex. — He seems (to be) determined. 

After the passive form of some verbs, the participle 
being, with as, is understood. 

Ex. — $he is regarded (as being) a good teacher. 

The conjunction, as, is, sometimes placed before 
the attribute, without being, when the verb is passive, 
simply to express the idea of capacity or office, and, per- 
haps, to give emphasis in some cases. 

Ex. — He was regarded as a good teacher. 

It is said by the best authors that almost any verb may 



32 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

be used to predicate an attribute of the subject, but the 
following are those commonly used for this purpose: 



become 


go, 


die, 


seem, 


get, 


continue, 


appear, 


grow, 


come, 


look, 


bake, 


make, 


feel, 


walk, 


taste, 


turn, 


live, 


smell. 


remain, 






ind the passive 


form of : 




account, 


consider, 


create, 


deem, 


regard, 


elect, 


style, 


name, 


hear, 


call, 


think, 


paint, 


reckon, 


say, 


appoint. 



The last named, take after them in the active voice, a 
direct object, and predicate of it an attributive object. This 
construction will be treated of hereafter. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Bread is baked brown. 

It is a proposition ; it is a combination of a subject and 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words ; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

Bread is the subject ; it is a word which represents 
that of which the attribute, brown, is asserted. 

Is baked brown is the predicate; it is that which is 
asserted of the subject. 

Ts baked is the copulative verb, used to connect the 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 33 

adjective attribute, brown, to the subject, bread, according 
to Rule IV. 

In this sentence, the adjective brown is a second attri- 
bute, and represents a quality of the subject, acquired 
through the action indicated by the verb baked. 

In all passive forms of the copulative verb, the passive 
participle used with the verb lie, is considered the first 
attribute, and the noun, adjective, or participle following, 
the second attribute. 

Ex. — He was called a martyr. Called is the first, or 
verbal, attribute, and martyr the second, or substantive 
attribute. 

PRACTICAL. 

It is of great importance that young persons be taught 
the nature and use of the copulative verb; many, whose 
attention has not been directed persistently to those things, 
imagine they are using the very best English when they 
say, She looks beautifully, I feel miserably, I feel badly, 
etc. 

One can easily decide when to use an adverb, and when 
an adjective, by observing the following : 

If reference is made to a quality, a property or a con- 
dition of the subject, an adjective, or an adjective expres- 
sion, should be used after the verb. 

But, if the manner of the action is referred to, an 
adverb is required. 

She looks beautiful ; she writes beautifully. 

He looks cold, for he has been on the ice; his mother 
looks coldly on him, because he has disobeyed her. 

I feel bad, when I am not well, or when I am in trouble; 
I feel badly, when the sense of touch is nof acute. 
C 



34 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



The copulative verb used to connect an attribute to the 
subject. 

It becomes tiresome. He is going mad. 

She seems sick. She walks a queen. 

Leaves turn yellow. They stand defenders. 

You look cold. She moves a goddess. 

He looks bad. He was called John. 

I feel warm. I feel happy. 

I feel miserable. Henry was made sick. 

They remain silent. He was made worse. 

Apples get ripe. He grows desperate. 

It is said to be true. He was made consul. 

Pierce was elected president. 

The bread was baked brown. 

Stephen died a martyr. 

The house is painted white. 

He was heard to speak. 

Write fifteen sentences to illustrate the rule. 



MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT. 

RULE I. — ANALYSIS. 

Any word, whether it be an adjective, a noun, or a pro- 
noun, when joined to the subject to limit or qualify it, must 
be called in analysis an adjective element. 

A sentence, in its simplest form, is composed of a noun 
used as the subject, and a finite verb used to assert some- 
thing of the subject. 

In order to convey a thought, with all its shades of 
meaning, however, it is necessary, in most sentences, to 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 35 

introduce other words for the purpose of modifying both 
the subject, and the predicate verb. 

In the sentence, birds Jieio, the class to which the sub- 
ject, birds, belongs is understood at once; and the kind of 
action indicated by the verb, flew, is, also, clearly under- 
stood ; but, still the thought is very indefinite. 

Three young white birds Rewfrom the tree. 

Here the words joined to the subject show the kind, 
the age, and the number of birds, and the modifier of the 
predicate shows the place where the action was performed. 

Thus it is seen that the use of these additional words 
or phrases will enable a speaker or a writer to make a clear 
and definite statement, and to extend the simple sentence 
to any desired length. 

The English language is rich in modifying words, yet 
all those that are used to vary the meaning of the subject, 
or a noun in any construction, may be classed under Tour 
heads : 

1. Limiting adjectives 9 which simply restrict the 
meaning of the noun, without showing any quality or prop- 
erty, whatever, as : 

an orange, 
two apples, 
that man. 

2. Qualifying adjectives, which show some prop- 
erty or quality natural to the object represented by the 
noun, as : 

a sweet orange, 
a sour apple, 
a wise man. 

3. Nouns or pronouns used to explain or to identify 
another noun or pronoun, as : 



db SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Victoria, Queen of England, 
Charles, the boy of whom I spoke. 

4. Nouns or pronouns used to denote possession, as : 
Mary's book, 
his hand. 

The adjectives which are used simply to limit tne 
meaning of a noun without designating any quality, in- 
clude : 

1. 'Articles. 

2. Pronominal Adjectives. 

3. Numeral Adjectives. 

There are two articles; the indefinite article, an or a, 
and the definite article, the. 

The indefinite article an is derived from the Anglo- 
Saxon ane, meaning one; but there is a shade of differ- 
ence; an is not so exact as one, nor is it so emphatic. An 
apple — not an orange; one apple — not two apples. 

It is a mistake to say that a becomes an before a vowel 
sound ; the change is made from an to a. 

The changes were made for the sake of euphony. 
First, the e^fcras dropped entirely from ane, leaving an ; 
and afterwards the n was dropped from an, leaving the a 
only, before words beginning with a consonant sound. 

It is now regarded as an absolute law of our language, 
than an should be used before words beginning with a 
vowel sound, and a before words beginning with a conso- 
nant sound. 

In old English, the form a or o is found for an, even 
when used as a numeral. We still say, they are both of a 
size, %. e., both of one size. — Mason. 

There is a peculiar construction of an or a with many, 
such, what, and some other words, as, many a man, such 
an hour, what a boy, etc. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 37 

Iii such combinations, the adjective and the article 
should be parsed as one word, and should be so considered 
in analysis. 

Many, followed by an or a, always limits a noun in the 
singular, though it at the same time indicates plurality; 
and the pronoun relating to the singular noun is usually 
put in the plural ; as : 

I have heard many an act of devotion, in my life, had 
Heaven vouchsafed me grace to profit by them. 

The definite article the is used to point out the 
particular thing or things spoken of. 

It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon thaet, which was 
changed to that, and finally, to the, but both are used. 

There is a shade of difference in meaning, however. 
That is the stronger word, and may be used to represent 
a noun ; the is not so emphatic, and cannot take the place 
of a noun. 

The is sometimes used with a noun taken in its widest 
sense for a whole race or species ; as : 

The lion is king of beasts. 

The eagle is a noble bird. 

Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 

The oak is a tall tree. 

The violet grows in shady places. 

But some nouns are used in their toidest sense, when no 
article is placed before them. The man, always means one 
man ; — jnan, used without the article, always refers to the 
race, as : 

Man (all human beings) is endowed with reason. 

The noun designating the ywofession, trade, or occupa- 
tion of man, however, when used with the, is often taken 
in its toidest sense, as : 

The physician heals the sick. 

The farmer cultivates the soil. 



38 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Pronominal Adjectives. 



Certain limiting adjectives are called JPrononiiiitd 
Adjectives, because they may be used, with equal pro- 
priety, either as a pronoun, representing- a noun under- 
stood, or as an adjective, limiting- the noun expressed. 

When used to represent a noun understood, only a few 
of them require the use of the article, as : 

The former, the latter, the same. 

Every and no require a noun, as neither of them can 
be used alone to represent a noun. 

Pronominal Adjectives are divided into four classes : 

1. Distributives!, or those which refer to things 
taken singly. 

They are each, every, either, neither. 

2. Demonstratives , or those that refer to things, 
pointing them out definitely, as : 

This, that, these, those, former, latter, same. 

3. Reciprocals , or those which bear a mutual rela- 
tion. 

They are each other and one another. 

4. The Indefinites, or those which refer to objects 
indefinitely. Words of this class are numerous, but the 
following are the principal : 

/Some, such, all, none, any, whole, one, other, another. 

One and other may be declined. 

One is not derived from the Anglo-Saxon ane, from 
which the numeral one is derived. It comes from the 
French on, which is an indefinite pronoun^ derived from 
the word homme, meaning man. On may be translated as, 
anybody, somebody, they, it, etc., as: 

On dit — they say, it is said somebody says, etc. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 6\i 

PRACTICAL. 

Use either and neither when reference is made to two 
things only, as : 

Either of the two books. 

Any of the three books. 

Do not say, the two boys help one another, but, the two 
boys help each other. One another should be used with 
reference to three or more persons or things ; each other, 
with reference to two, only. 

This and these refer to things near to us, or to some- 
thing' just mentioned ; that and those, to something more 
distant, or something spoken of before. 

The Numeral Adjectives. 

Numeral adjectives are those used in counting, 
in numbering, and in multiplying, as: 

One, two, first, threefold. 

Those used in counting are called cavdiltals, be- 
cause they are the principal, or most important, as: 

One, two, three, twenty, thirty, hundred. 

Note. — The cardinal points of the compass are the principal 
points. Cardinal red,— the color worn by the cardinals, or principal 
officers of the Catholic Church. 

Those used in numbering are called ordinals 9 be- 
cause they point out which thing, or which things, in a 
series, as: 

First, second, ninth, twentieth. 

The greater number of the ordinals are derived from 
the cardinals, and are formed by adding th, as: 

Sixth, seventh, tenth, hundredth; 
but the ordinals corresponding to one, two, three, are: 

First, second, third. 



40 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Those used to denote repetition, or to show how many 
times, are called -multi pi i rati res f as: 

Once, twice, thrice (these ai e often used as adverbs), 
two-fold, ten-fold, hundred-fold, double, triple, quadruple. 

The numeral adjectives, when used without the noun, 
yet referring- to the noun, either just mentioned or clearly 
understood, should he parsed as a noun, as: 
\Vhere are my books? 

Ans. Two are on the table, and three are in the library. 
In this sentence two and three should be parsed as nouns. 

When the ordinals are used as nouns, the article is 
required before them, as: 

The first entered; the second remained outside. 

The ordinal adjectives are more definite than the car- 
dinals, as: 

Study one lesson, *. e., any lesson. 

Study the second lesson, i. e., a particular lesson. 

PRACTICAL. 

The numeral adjectives which denote how many, must 
agree in number with the noun which they limit, as: 

Two boys, three miles, four feet. 

Nouns used with numeral adjectives to denote de- 
grees of measurement, should be in the singular or in the 
plural, as the case may be, as: 

Cut off one inch or two inches of the string. 

Cut off one foot or two feet of the pole. 

Cut off one yard or two yards of the cloth. 

But, when the words inch, foot, yard, etc., are used 
with a numeral adjective, forming a comjilex adjective term, 
they should always be in the singular, as: 

Cut off two inches of the nine-inch string. 

Cut off three feet of the ten-foot pole. 

Cut off four yards of the forty-yard bolt of cloth. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 41 

He surveyed ten acres on the east side of the forty-acre 
tract. 

Sometimes a numeral adjective and a noun combined 
are used to denote quantity or amount. In such cases the 
verb should always be singular, though the noun be in the 
plural, as: 

Two hundred dollars is all I need. 

Ten minutes was all the time allowed me. 

But, in speaking of coins, the plural verb should be 
used, as: 

Two hundred gold dollars were in the box. 

Under this head may be classed such expressions as: 

Twice four is eight, Jive times six is thirty, etc., 
but while the weight of authority is in favor of the use 
of the singular verb, in the last-named, some good writers 
use the plural. 

Qualifying Adjectives. 

Adjectives that are joined to nouns to limit them by 
denoting some quality, property, or peculiarity, are classed 
under the head of Qualifying Adjectives, as: 

A bright star, a daily visit, an earnest student. 

The greater number of these adjectives are varied to 
denote different degrees of quality, but there are some that 
will not admit of comparison. Among the last named are: 

1. Those of absolute signification, or such as indicate a 
quality, which, from its nature, can not exist in the object 
in a greater or a less degree, as: 

Mortal, immortal, eternal, everlasting, infinite, almighty, 
omniscient, etc. 

2. Those denoting position, form and material, as: 
Vertical, square, woolen, etc. 

3. Those derived from proper names, as: 



4:2 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

American, Washingtonian . 

The words full, round, and perfect, seem to have an 
absolute signification, yet some good writers use them in 
the comparative and the superlative. 

J^gr* Some adjectives, mostly compounds of a, can be 
used only in the predicate, as: 

Asleep, alive, awake. 

Many of the qualifying adjectives may be used in the 
place of a noun, and parsed as such, when the reference to 
the noun is clear, but the article must be used with them, as: 

The sweet applies are in the basket, but the sour are in 
the box. 

Note. — Some authors say that in expressions such as the above, 
the adjectives are not used as nouns, but should be parsed as adject- 
ives limiting a noun understood; and, that, in such as the following: 
" The poor ye have always with you," the adjective should be parsed 
as a noun. It would seem, however, that the distinction is too nice 
to be noticed, if there be really any distinction whatever. 

The adjective, as it has already been explained, is used 
to limit nouns only, but there is a peculiar, though a very 
common construction, in which the adjective limits a com- 
plex idea, formed by a noun and an adjective combined, as: 

I saw beautiful American silk. 

She had a large white rose. 

In the first sentence, beautiful modifies American silk, 
and in the second sentence, large modifies white rose. 

A careful distinction should be made between the ad- 
jective element, which is always a modifier, and the adjective 
attribute, which is never a modifier. 

To modify is to vary, to give a new form to, and to 
change, not only the form of the word itself, but also to 
change the meaning, to a certain extent. 

A change in the word itself is a modification of the 
word, as, from the singular to the plural. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 43 

Ex. — Man, men ; boy, boys. 

Changes are made also by additional words, and these 
words are called modifiers. They are always subordinate 
words depending upon the subject, or any noun which they 
are used to modify, as: 

A rich man ; a good boy. 

But, to predicate is to affirm, to assert, to declare, or to 
state some attribute of the subject. 

The adjective, therefore, used with the copula, or with 
the copulative verb, to form the grammatical predicate, is 
simply the word used as the name of a quality which is 
declared to exist in the subject, and for that reason it is 
said to belong to the subject. 

The grammatical subject and the gram- 
matical predicate are both principal elements, there- 
fore as the adjective attributive forms a part of the gram- 
matical predicate, it can not be a modifier; for all modifiers, 
as it has been said, are subordinate elements. 



Participles. 

Participles , when used as modifiers of the noun, are 
included under the head of qualifying adjectives. 

But, as they differ materially from the qualifying ad- 
jective proper, it is thought necessary to explain, carefully, 
their nature as well as their uses. 

A participle is not a distinct part of speech. It is a 
word which partakes of the nature of a verb, and of some 
other part of speech, as the name indicates; for the word 
participle is derived from the Latin word participare, 
meaning to partake. 

The participle is derived from a verb, and in all its uses 
retains the signification of a verb, but it can not be used to 
assert. 



44 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

In the construction of a sentence it is used as an adject- 
ive or a noun, seldom, if ever, as an adverb. 

It has been stated that every verb has two parts, the 
assertive p>art or copula, and the attributive part. 

When the verb is deprived of the power of asserting, 
the attributive part alone is left, and this part is called a 
participle. 

As the participle always retains the signification of the 
verb from which it is derived, it follows: 

1. That if the verb is an active transitive verb, its par? 

ticiples must be active and transitive, as: 

John loved his mother. 

Here loved is an active transitive verb, and governs the 
object, mother ; and in the expression, John loving his 
mother, the participle loving retains the active transitive 
signification of the verb love, from which it is derived, and 
it also governs the object, mother. 

In the expression, John loved by his mother, the parti 
ciple, though passive in form, still retains the active trans- 
itive signification of the verb love, for: 

Neither a verb nor a participle can take a passive form 
(except in certain idioms, as : he is come, they are gone, 
etc.) if it has not an active transitive signification. 

When a verb is transitive, it asserts an action which 
passes from the actor, and produces an effect upon some 
object or objects. 

The subject of a verb does not necessarily represent an 
a tor, but it, as often, perhaps, represents a person or a 
thing acted upon ; therefore, it is the subject in such sen- 
tences that is in fact, passive ; and it follows : 

Though the nature of the verb is not changed, it takes 
what is called a passive form, only to show that the subject, 
instead of acting, is the receiver of the act. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 45 

As the participle must retain the nature of the verb 
from which it is derived, the passive participle must retain 
an active transitive signification, and is used, not to assert, 
but simply to denote the reception of an act by the subject, 
or a noun in other constructions. 

2. If the verb from which the participle is derived is an 
active intransitive verb, the participle is an active intransi- 
tive participle, as : 

The sun rises • 
here rises is an active intransitive verb ; and in the expres- 
sion, the sun rising, the participle is active and intransitive. 

3. If the verb expresses being, the participle will denote 
being, as : 

Mary is here. Mary being here. 

4. If the verb asserts state, the participle denotes state, as: 
The child sleeps on the ground. The child sleeping on 

the ground. 

Note. — The participle is often used as a noun, and, 
sometimes, also, seems to have an adverbial signification, 
but in this lesson it will be treated of only in its use as a 
modifier of the subject, or of nouns in other constructions 
in the simple sentence, as: 

The singing bird; the twinkling star; a cultivated field; 
a refined manner. 

In the above expressions, the participles are used to 
limit the nouns, and are placed before the nouns. 

These are called participial adjectives. 

The participle in an abridged proposition intro- 
duces an adjective element, which is called participial con- 
struction; but, though this participle introduces and forms 
a part of the adjective element, it should not be called a 
participial adjective. 

Note. — Careful instruction should be given in the 
method of parsing a participial adjective. 



46 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Note. — A celebrated author says : When a participle 
is so used (before the noun) call it a participial adjective 
and parse it as any other adjective/ but, it would seem 
better to instruct the pupil in all that pertains to the par- 
ticiple, excepting those points which are beyond his com- 
prehension. 

The pupil in the common schools cannot understand, 
easily, references made to the Latin; therefore it is thought 
better to omit any discussion on the gerund or the gerund- 
ive. 

But the pupil can understand, with little effort, that the 
word singing, in the sentence, the singing bird is in the 
cage, though it is used to modify the word bird, differs 
materially from the word beautiful, in the sentence, " the 
beautiful bird is in the cage.' 1 

This difference is not a difference in use; for both 
words are used for the same purpose, *. e., to modify a 
noun; but the words themselves differ. 

The word beautiful, as well as the other qualifying 
adjectives, is always, and in every construction, used to 
qualify a noun, even though the noun be understood. 

The word singing, however (and all the present active 
participles) may be used in six different constructions; yet 
it never loses the nature of the verb from which it is 
derived; in all these constructions it retains the idea of 
action. 

Illustration. — A piece of stone may be made the 
size, the shape, and the color of a brick; and it may be 
used in the construction of a house, as a brick is used; yet 
it will not lose one element of its nature — it will still be 
stone. 

Note. — The passive participles have four different con- 
structions; the perfect active and the perfect passive 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 47 

participles have, each, two different constructions. These 
will be explained hereafter. 

Great care should be taken to instruct pupils in the 
correct use of the participle. 

Habit is .more powerful in controlling speech than 
knowledge is; therefore, in many cases, the teacher will 
find constant and persistent efforts necessary on his part to 
aid his pupils in freeing themselves from the habit of using 
such expressions as: 

1. I seen it. You done it. 

These are incorrect, because both seen and done are 
participles; • and no participle, when used alone, has any 
power to make an assertion. Say: 

I saw it. You did it. 

2. I have saw. I have went. The bell has rang. 
These expressions are incorrect, because the words saw, 

went, and rang are verbs, in the past tense; and the last 
word of every verb in the perfect tense must be a parti- 
ciple. Say: 

I have seen. I have gone. The bell has rung. 

The participle when used with any auxiliary verb is 
parsed with the auxiliary, the two forming one verb. 

3. I had ought to go. 

This expression is not only inelegant, but there is not 
the shadow of an argument in favor of its use. The verb 
ought is a defective verb; it has no participle, therefore it 
can not have a perfect tense. Say: 

J ought to go. 

MODEL. 

He surveyed ten acres of the forty-acre tract. 

This is a sentence, it is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

It is a simple sentence, it contains but one proposition 



48 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Declarative it makes an affirmation. 

He is the subject, unmodified. 

Surveyed is the simple predicate, it is modified 
by ten acres of the forty-acre tract, a complex objective 
word element. Acres is the basis, modified by ten, a 
simple adjective element, and Jxy of the forty-acre tract, a 
complex adjective element, tract is modified by forty -acre 
a complex adjective element, an inseparable adjective 
term. 



MODIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT.— APPOSITION. 

RULE II. ANALYSIS. 

A noun or a personal pronoun in apposition with 
another noun or pronoun, must be in the same cast ; and, 
in analysis, it should be called an adjective element. 

Apposition is from the Latin AppOSttUS, which 

means put to; the noun in apposition is put to the other 
noun, or by the side of it. 

Abraham, the servant of the Lord. 
Hope, the charmer. 
Apposition proper, does not include the ^>m7/cate 
nominative, as some have supposed; for: 

1. The predicate nominative is not put to nor by the 
side of the subject. 

2. The noun or pronoun in apposition with the subject 
is used as a modifier of the subject, and thus becomes, 
itself, a part of the logical, or complex subject. 

As it must be in the same construction as the subject, 
it can not possibly form a part of the predicate; but the 
Attribute, or predicate nominative forms a material part 
of the grammatical predicate. 

The noun or the personal pronoun, however, may be 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 49 

used in apposition with a noun or a pronoun in any con- 
struction, as: 

1. Apposition with the subject nominative: 

Snow- Bound, a beautiful poem, was written by Whit- 
tier. 

2. Apposition with the predicate nominative: 

This is Snow-Bound, a beautiful poem written by 
Whittier. 

3. Apposition with the objective: 

I am reading Snow-Bound, a beautiful poem by Whit- 
tier. 

4. Apposition with the possessive: 

Whittier the poets Snow-Bound is a beautiful poem. 

5. x\pposition with the nominative independent: 
O sun, source of all light! 

In the fourth illustration the word Whittier is the real 
possessive, and the word poet is in the 2^>ossessive only to 
agree with Whittier, but the best writers place the sign of 
possession with the last word only. 

In the construction of sentences, apposition has several 
different uses, all of them important, as: 

1. To identify— 

Your friend, Mr. Broion, called this morning. 

2. To describe — 

O my coevals, remnants of yourselves! " 

3. To explain — 

Tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep. 

4. In repetitions for the sake of emphasis — 
A traitor, a traitor to his country. 

The connectives, namely, as, to-ioit, and others are 
sometimes used to make the noun in apposition emphatic, 
as: 

You, as my guardian, have a right to object. 
D 3 



50 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



POSSESSIVES. 



RULE III. ANALYSIS. 



A noun or a pronoun used to limit a noun in any 
construction, by denoting possession, must, in analysis, be 
called an adjective element. 



A noun or a pronoun may be used to denote: 

1. Ownership, as: 
John's horse; my book. 

2. Source or origin, as: 

The North's cold winter blasts; the South' s warm 
gentle zephyrs. 

3. Fitness of adaptation, as: 
Men's hats; children's shoes. 

4. The relation of a part to the whole, as: 
The river's source; Mary's hand. 

5. Kindred or social relations, as: 
Sis friend; your enemy; my father. 

6. Result of some action upon, as: 
Stephen's martyrdom. 

7. Relation of time, place, measurement and weight, as: 
A day's work; America's mountains; & yard's length; 

& pound's weight. 

The possessive relations are often expressed by the 
preposition and its object, as: 

The house of my father. 

The cold winter blasts from the North. 

Shoes for children. 

The source of the river. 

There is & figurative use of the possessive in some com- 
pound words —names of plants; these words should always 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 51 

be written with the sign of possession, and should always 
be parsed as one word, as: 

Wolfs-bane, lamtfs-tongite, JoVs-tears, etc. 

It is necessary to observe the difference between these 
words and others which resemble them, but, though they 
suggest the idea of possession, they do not take the pos- 
sessive sign, as: 

Ratsbane; herdsman. 

The last mentioned are taken in their literal significa- 
tion, and are written without the sign of possession. 

The word wolf's-bane is the name of a plant; it is used 
figuratively; but the word rats-bane is the name of a 
poison ; and it is used, as it has been said, in its literal 
meaning. 

PRACTICAL. 

The pronouns in the possessive case do not take the 

rophe, but they have a peculiar form, as: 
The child hurt its (not it's) hand. 



COMPLEX POSSESSIVE8. 

There are certain combinations of words which form a 
complex possessive. 

These combinations should be considered inseparable in 
analysis; the last word takes the sign of possession, as: 

The jewels in the Queen of England's crown are beau- 
tiful and rare. 

But when possession is predicated, the first noun in the 
group of words takes the sign, as: 

" There shall nothing die of all that is the children's of 
Israel." — Exodus ix. 4. 



52 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

COMPOUND POSSESSIVES. 

When several nouns in the possessive are coordinate in 
construction, each limiting one common object, the last 
word only, takes the sign, as: 

Taylor, Berry and Brown's store; that is, one store. 

William and Mary's reign; that is, one reign. 

But, when the coordinate terms in the possessive do 
not limit the noun by denoting joint ownership or posses- 
sion, each word should take the sign, as: 

Greene's, Mason's, and Butler's Grammar; that is, three 
grammars. 

POSSESSIVES. 

There is a peculiar construction in which a noun in the 
possessive case is modified by a noun or a pronoun in the 
possessive, as: 

John's brother's knife; His friend's house. 

In the sentence above, the two possessives combined, 
form one complex, adjective element, used to limit the noun. 

Sometimes an adjective is used to limit a noun in the 
possessive, thus forming a complex adjective element, as: 

The Ancient Mariner's Agony. 

In the above sentence Agony is modified by Ancient 
Mariner's, a complex adjective element. 

This kind of modification must be carefully distin- 
guished from the modification of a complex idea, funned by 
the combination of a noun and an adjective. 

This combination is explained on Page 42. 

The difference may be easily shown by omitting the 
word next to the noun; thus in the expression, 

Ancient historical records, 
if the word historical were omitted, the word ancient would 
Still limit the word records. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. • 06 

Iii the sentence given above, however, The Ancient 
Mariner's Agony, if the word Mariners were omitted, 
Ancient would not modify Agony. 

Also, in the expression, Mary's teacher's library, Mary 
does not modify teacher's library, but the word teacher 
only. 

If the word teacher's be omitted, it will be seen, at 
once, that by making Mary a modifier of library, the mean- 
ing is entirely changed. 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 1. 

Every wise man is prudent. 

This is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

Man is the subject; it is that about something which 
is said. 

Is prudent is the predicate; it is what is said of the 
subject. 

The subject Man is limited by the adjective element 
wise, and the complex idea wise man is limited by every, 
an adjective element. 

The predicate is formed of the copula is and the adjec- 
tive attribute prudent. 

The predicate is not limited. 

Any element which is limited in any way is called a 
complex element. 

Note. — When the subject is not limited, it is called the 
simple or grammatical subject. 



54 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

When it is limited, it is called the complex or logical 
subject. 

MODEL II. 

Sis brother's knife is broken. 

This is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

Knife is the simple subject. 

His brothers knife is the compiex subject. 

Is broken is the predicate. 

The simple subject knife is limited by the complex 
adjective element, his brother's; the basis of which is 
brother's, limited by the adjective attribute his. 

The predicate is composed of the copula is and the at- 
tribute broken. 

It is not limited. 

MODEL III. 

Venus, the evening star, is brilliant. 

This is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in 
in words. 

It is simple sentence ; it contains but one proposition. 

Declarative, it asserts or declares something. 

Venus is the simple subject. 

Venus, the evening star, is the complex subject. 

Is brilliant is the predicate. 

The simple subject, Venus, is modified by the complex 
adjective element, the evening star; the basis of which is 
star, a noun in apposition with Venus. Star is modified by 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 55 

evening, an adjective element ; and the complex idea, 
evening star, is modified by the adjective element the. 

Is brilliant, the predicate, is composed of the copula is 
and the adjective attribute brilliant. It is not modified. 

The subject may be limited also, by a compound adjec- 
tive element, as: 

A wise and good man should be our ruler. 

When the conjunction is omitted, a comma should be 
placed between the two adjective elements. 

In the sentence above, wise and good are elements of 
equal rank, each depending upon and modifying the sub- 
ject man. 

RULE IV. ANALYSIS. 

A preposition and its object, or an infinitive may be 
used to limit the meaning of a noun, and in analysis 
should be called an adjective ivord element. 

A pJivase, in its broadest sense, is any group of words 
which does not contain a, finite verb, as: 

A very large river. 

But, in the analysis of sentences, the term phrase will 
be applied to the infinitive, and the preposition and its 
object only, as: 

At home, in town, to go, to sing. 

The prepositional phrase is often used as an adjective 
element; and the relation is usually shown by of, as: 

A thing of beauty; An hour of happiness; The top of 
the tree. 

Any preposition, however, may be used to show the 
relation of its object to a noun, as: 

The birds in the cage are beautiful. 

The tree by the fountain is an oak. 

The boy in the house is my brother. 

The arirl at the window is vour sister. 



56 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The stars above us are brilliant. 

Each phrase in the above sentences is an adjective ele- 
ment. 

This may be proved by expanding the phrase into an 
adjective clause, as: 

The tree by the fountain, — the tree which is by the 
fountain. 

The girl at the window, — the girl xoho is at the window, 
etc. 

These prepositional phrases, when used in the clauses, 
are adverbial elements; but when the clauses are abridged, 
whatever part of the element remains, takes, not only the 
character, but the name, also, of the clause of which it 
once formed a part. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

The time to return was set. 

It is a proposition; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

Time is the simple subject. 

The time to return is the complex subject. 

Was set is the predicate. 

Time, the simple subject, is modified by the, a simple 
adjective element. 

It is also modified by to return, an infinitive used as an 
adjective element. 

The predicate is composed of the copula is, and the 
verbal attribute set. It is not modified. 

EXERCISES. 

The two good boys are studying. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 57 

Three weary pilgrims are resting. 

Singing birds were sold. 

The sun, a snow-blown traveler, sank, etc. — Whittiee. 

The hour of rest has come. 

Houses to rent are scarce. 

' ' Lives the Arrow-maker's daughter, 
Minnehaha, Laughing "Water, 
Handsomest of all the women. " — Longfellow. 



Objective Element. 

rule v. analysis. 

Any xoord used to complete the meaning of a transitive 
verb, or its participles, is in the objective case/ and in 
analysis should be called an objective word element. 

A transitive verb is one which shows that the 
action passes from the subject, either a person or a thing, 
and terminates with some other person or thing, affecting 
it in some way indicated by the verb; as: 

He cut the apple. 

Mary loves her mother. 

The subject of the verb may be the actor y or it may be 
the receiver of the act; but, in either case, the verb is tran- 
sitive, as: 

The boy killed the bird. 

In this sentence killed is a transitive verb, in the active 
voice, and is used to assert the kind of action performed by 
the subject. 

But, in the sentence, The bird was killed by the boy, 
toas killed is a transitive verb, in the passive voice, and is 
used to assert the kind of action received by the subject. 

In analysis, the object upon which the action termi- 
nates, should be called the direct objective element. 



58 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

I broke the pitcher myself. 

It is a proposition ; it is the combination of a subject 
and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words; therefore it 
is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

I is the subject; it is a word which represents the 
person of whom the action indicated by the verb broke is 
asserted. It is modified by myself, an adjective element,' 
by apposition, used for the sake of emphasis. 

Broke, the simple predicate, is modified by the com- 
plex direct objective element, the pitcher, the basis of 
which is pitcher, modified by the adjective element the. 

Some verbs are always transitive, as: 

Eat, write, teach, see, love, destroy, read, etc. 

They require an object to complete their meaning; and 
always suggest an object, if one is not expressed. 

When one says, I read every night, there is no doubt 
whatever in the mind of the hearer, — lie knows that the 
action indicated by the word read, terminates on some 
object; if one eats, he must exert an action upon some- 
thing; and the verb teach always suggests two parties, — a 
subject and an 



Note. — Authors who assert that a verb should be called 
transitive, only when an object is expressed, are, probably, 
not aware of the confusion and uncertainty produced in 
the minds of teachers and/>?<£><7s, by such a statement. 

Some verbs properly classed with transitive verbs, when 
used in a peculiar signification, become intransitive, as: 

Gather, break, siceep, move, melt, and others. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 59 

Transitive. Intransitive. 

He gathers nuts. The clouds gather. 

She breaks the glass. The day breaks. 

I swept the floor. The wind swept by. 

John melted the lead. The ice melts. 

He moved the chair. She moved gracefully. 

In the sentences above, under the head of Intransitive, 
no object is suggested by the verbs ; yet, when these verbs 
are spoken of alone (when not in a sentence) they should 
be called transitive, for they are commonly so used; one may 
gather, break, sioeep, melt^ and move a great many things. 

An intransitive verb is one which represents an action 
that does not pass from the subject, but expresses, in full, 
the idea intended to be conveyed, without even suggesting 
an object, as: 

Rise, fall, go, come, lie (to recline), sit, etc. 

Such verbs are always intransitive. 

The verbs be, become, and seem, also, are always intran- 
sitive. 

Some intransitive verbs become transitive by a peculiar 
use. 

1. When followed by a noun of kindred signification, as: 

He lived a happy life. 

He died the <£ea£A of the righteous. 

You sang a song. 

I raw a race. 

She dreamed a dream. 

2. By denoting a causative signification, as: 

They raw a tfrai'w. 

He^ew his &&e. 

He flashed the powder. 



60 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

3. By the addition of a preposition, as: 

Intransitive Transitive. 

They laughed aloud. They laughed a* him. 

Transitive, passive voice. 

He was laughed at. 

Note. — The verb and the preposition should be parsed together 
as a compound verb. 

Indirect Object.. 

rule vi. analysis. 

A noun or pronoun, used with a preposition, either 
expressed or understood, to modify the meaning of a verb, 
should be called, in analysis, an objective phrase element. 

The indirect object may be a noun or pronoun used 
with a preposition to indicate: 

1. The person or thing to whom, or to which, or for 
whom, or for which an action is exerted. 

2. That out of which a thing is made. 

3. The person or thing of whom, or of which something 
is said. 

Ex. — He gave a book to me. 

He gives rain to the thirsty ground. 

It gives strength to the cord. 

He made a coat out of the cloth. 

I wrote a letter for Mary. 

Mary works for the society. 

John spoke of his father. 

John spoke of his troubles. 

You gave him a dollar. 
Some verbs may be followed by an indirect object only, 
as: 

Speak, work, write, and some others; 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 61 

but the direct object is often understood, and may be sup- 
plied easily. 

Ex. — He spoke to me. 

I work for him. 

He writes for the Journal. 

Note. — The infinitive, though it is a phrase element, is, when 
used as an object of a verb, always a direct object. 

MODEL I. 

Mr. Long bought some toys for his children. 

It is a proposition; it is the combination of a 

subject and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words, 
therefore it is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence ; it contains but one propo- 
sition. 

It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirm- 
ation. 

Mr. Long is the simple subject; it is not 

modified. 
Bought is the simple predicate; it is 

modified by the complex direct ob- 
jective element, some toys, of which 
toys is the basis, modified by some, 
a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

JBougllt is also modified by for 
his children, an objective phr use- 
element (indirect object); for chil- 
dren is the basis; children is 
modified by Jtis, a simple adjective 
word element. 



63 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The indirect object is often used to complete the 
meaning of an adjective, as: 

I am anxious to go. 

She was desirous of fame. 

It is not pleasant to him. 

When the infinitive is used to complete the meaning of 
an adjective, it is an indirect object. 

The preposition should be omitted when the indirect 
object is placed before the direct. 

Ex. — Mr. Long bought his children some toys. 

Sometimes the indirect object is used without a prepo- 
sition, when the direct object is understood. 

Ex. — They paid the man. 

In the foregoing sentence, the word man seems to be 
a direct object; but the real construction will be perceived 
easily when the direct object is supplied. 

Ex. — They paid the money to the man. 



I made a kite out of paper for the boy. 

It is a proposition; it is the combination of a 

subject and a predicate. 

It is the expression of a thought in words, 

therefore it is a sentence. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one propo- 
sition. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 63 

It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirma- 
tion. 

I is the simple subject; it is unmodified. 

Wade is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
a kite, a complex objective word element 
(direct object); kite is the basis' it is modified 
by a, a simple adjective word element. 

Made is modified, also, by out of paper, 
a simple objective phrase element (indirect 
object) used to show the material used in the 
construction of the kite; the basis is out of 
paper ; it is not modified. Out of is a com- 
plex preposition. 

Made is modified also by for the- boy, a 
complex objective phrase element (indirect 
object) used to show for whom the action 
represented by made was performed. 

Note. — Verbs are often followed by several indirect 
objects, differing, however, in meaning, therefore not com- 
pound, but each depending directly on the verb. 

EXERCISES UPON THE INDIRECT OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

1. Mary gave her the flowers. 

2. He gathered nuts for the children. 

3. You are full of ambition. 

4. He is worthy of your kindness. 

5. They asked about going to Europe. 

6. I gave clothes to the poor. 

7. They paid her. 

8. I worked for the public. 

9. You made a quilt of silk. 

10. They coin money out of silver. 



64 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Write twenty sentences to illustrate the objective ele- 
ment direct and indirect. 



Double Object, 
rule VII. 

When a copulative verb, in the active voice, is followed 
by a direct object, and some attribute of the direct object, the 
two combined form a double object, which should be called, 
in analysis, a double objective element. 

The double object should be distinguished carefully 
from: 

1. The compound objective element, as: 

I saw the comet and the morning star. 
I met the man and the boy. 

In these sentences either object may be omitted with- 
out affecting the meaning of the other, as: 

I saw the comet. 
I met the boy. 

I. The direct object and the indirect object, as: 

I plowed the field for Mr. Jones. 

I plowed the field. 

I plowed for Mr. Jones. 

I gave money to the poor. 

I gave money. 

I gave to the poor. 

In this construction it is seen, also, that the omission 
of one of the objects does not change in the least the 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 05 

meaning of the other, but such is not true or the double 
object. 

In the construction of the double object, the direct 
object and the attributive object are so closely related that 
a separation of the one from the other makes, in most 
cases, an entire change in the meaning of the sentence, as: 

They called him John. 
They called him. 
They called John. 
She walks a queen. 
She walks fast. 

It will be seen, readily, that the omission of the attribu- 
tive objects in the foregoing sentences makes an entire 
change in the meaning. 

The attributive, or second object is not always a noun; 
it may be: 

1. A noun, as: They named her Mary. 

2. An adjective, as: They made her happy. 

3. A verb, as: They made her write. 

The attributive object usually denotes the result of 
some action upon the dire t object. 

The result of the action, if it be indicated by a noun, 
denotes rani; office, capacity, profession, trade, etc., as: 

He anointed David (to be) king. 

They appointed him chairman. 
Study made him a scholar. 
Idleness will make him -a pauper. 

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish the attributive 

E 3* 



66 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

object from the indirect object. The following will aid in 
making the distinction: 

1. When the attributive object is a noun, it denotes 
what the direct object is, or what At is supposed to be, as: 

They chose her queen of the May. 
I thought him a coward. 

2. When the attributive object is an adjective, it shows 
some quality or property belonging to the direct object, 
which quality or property is the result of some action of 
the subject indicated, by the verb, as: 

She baked the bread brown. 
It made me happy. 

3. W T hen the attributive object is a verb, it shows: 

(1) Some &ct performed, or to be performed by the sub- 
ject, as: 

I heard him (to) repeat the lesson. 
I told the children to play. 

(2) Some action received by the direct object, as: 

I caused him to be discharged. 
I heard him reproved. 
I saw it taken away. 

Sometimes when the attribute is a noun, it is the name 
(.f anew substance or material, which is the result of an 
entire change of the substance or material represented by 
the direct object, as: 

They burned the house to ashes. 
Frank broke the plate into Mty pieces. 
She boiled it to jelly. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 07 

The change in substance or material is produced by the 
action, represented by the verb, upon the direct object. 

This kind of construction assumes various forms, some 
of them idiomatic and very peculiar. 

Many of them, though household expressions, present 
great difficulty to those who are not familiar with analysis 
as: 

She pumped the well dry. 

I talked myself tired. 

He shot the bird dead. 

You must keep the coffee hot. 

I worked my hands weary. 

You must keep your hands clean. 

The double object frequently follows a preposition, and 
is governed by it, as: 

For him to become a good boy seems impossible. 

Note. — Some authors object to the term, double object, but they 
fail to supply a better one. 



The Court appointed him guardian. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

Court is the simple subject; it is modified 

by the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 



68 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Appointed is the simp>le predicate; it is modi- 

fied by him guardian, a double 
objective element; him is the direct 
object, and guardian is the attribu- 
tive object. Guardian is an attribute 
of him; and it is governed by 
appointed; it requires both words 
(him and guardian) to complete the 
predication of the copulative verb 
appointed. 

Note. — In this sentence, and in many sentences con- 
taining a copulative verb followed by a double object, the 
conjunction as, or the infinitive to be, may be placed 
before the attributive object, but they are used only to con- 
nect the attributive to the direct object. 

The infinitive to be is used as a copula to join the at- 
tributive object to the direct object; it cannot govern an 
object. The participle being is sometimes used with as. 

Ex. — We regarded him as being honest. 



Make His paths straight. — Bible. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is an imperative sentence; it expresses a command. 

Ye (understood) is the subject; it is unmodified 

Make is the predicate ; it is modified by 

His paths straight; paths is the 
direct object, modified by His, a 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 69 

simple adjective word element. 
Straight is the attributive object {to 
be is understood); it is an adjective 
attribute of paths, called an object, 
because it shows the result of the 
action of the verb make upon paths. 



MODEL III. 

I urged him to study. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

I is the subject, unmodified. 

TJl'getil is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

him to study, a double objective element. 

Him is the direct object; the infinitive 
to study is the attributive object; it shows 
the kind of action to be performed by 
the one denoted by the direct object him. 



He ground it to powder. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

He is the subject; it is unmodified. 



70 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

CrVOUtld is the simjyle predicate; it is modified by 
it to powder, a double objective element. 
It is the direct object, to powder is the 
attributive object, which represents the 
result of the action, expressed by the 
verb ground, upon the direct object. 

The preposition to is used to show 
the relation of poioder to it. 

The following sentences may be analyzed according to 
models given above. 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

1. They called him traitor. 

2. Henry considered himself' a good marksman. 

3. His parents named him Samuel. 

4. I thought him faithful. 

5. They elected Pierce president. 

6. You made him angry. 

7. She swept the floor clean. 

8. It struck the man dumb. 

9. He painted the house white. 

10. She dyed the cloth blue. 

11. The boy made him cry. 

12. She kept his supper warm. 

13. Make the sleeve large. 

14. She caused it to be destroyed. 

15. She made him destroy it. 

16. It turned his hair gray. 

17. I considered him a good boy. 

18. He ate the plate empty. 

19. The sky greio a beautiful red. 

20. Consider the case 



Write original sentences, to illustrate the double object 
in the different forms. 



the simple sentence. 71 

The Adverbial Element. 

rule VIII. 

A word used to modify the meaning of a verb, a parti- 
ciple, an adjective, or an adverb, by denoting time, place, 
manner, or degree, should be called, in analysis, an 
adverbial word element. 

The adverbial element is not necessary to complete the 
meaning of the element which it modifies; but it adds 
strength and elegance to composition, and aids in making 
the thought clear and definite. 

Adverbial word elements (adverbs) are so numerous, 
and so various in use that almost any desirable shade of 
meaning may be given to a thought, or an expression. 

Ex. — I want to go (the infinitive unmodified). 
I want to go now. 
I want to go then. 
I want to go soon. 
I want to go sometimes. 
I want to go early. 
I want to go late. 
I want to go often. 
I want to go there. 
I want to go yonder. 
I want to go somewhere. 
I want to go abroad. 
I want to go hence. 
I want to go fast. 
I want to go sloioly. 
I want to go fearlessly. 
I want to go cheerfully. 
I do not want to go. 



SYNTAX A XI) ANALYSIS. 



Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs of Time. 

Adverbs of time answer the questions, when ? hoxo 
long ? how often ? as : 



When? 

now 

then 


How often? 

twice 

thrice 




How long? 

always 

everlastingly 


soon 


often 




forever 


late 


seldom 




forevermore 


early 

lately 

shortly 

already 

hitherto 

afterward 


again 
yearly- 
quarterly 
monthly 
weekly 
daily 




eternally 

unceasingly 

finally 


recently 
formerly 
previously 
hereafter 


hourly 
annually 
continually 
frequently 






ever 


occasionally 






never 


incessantly 






nevermore 


repeatedly 






Adverbs of Place. 

Adverbs of place answer the questions 
whence? 

EXAMPLES. 

Where? Whither? 


, where? whither? 
Whence? 


here 


yonder 






hither 
there 
thither 


homeward 

eastward 
westward 


erl 

ad 


Whence is prop- 
y answered by 
verbial phrases. 


anywhere 
everywhere 


northward 
southward 






somewhere 
nowhere 


upward 
downward 







THE SI3IPLE SENTENCE. 73 

Adoerbs of place are not numerous; adverbial phrases 
are generally used to answer inquiries for place. 

Adverbs of Cause and of Purpose, 

There are in reality no adverbs of cause or of purpose, 
but there are a few that inquire for a cause or a purpose, 
as: 

Why? wherefore? and some phrases, as : On what 

account? For what reason? 

Adverbial phrases or clauses must be used to answer 
such questions. 

Ex. — Why did you come to town? 

I came to buy provisions for the workmen. 
I came because you sent for me. 

Adverbs of Manner, 

Adverbs of manner answer the question, how? 

Ex. — How does she ride? 
She rides gracefully. 

Adverbs of manner are very numerous; and many of 
them are derived from qualifying adjectives. 
The most of these end in ly y as: 



softly 


worthily 


elegantly 


sweetly 


loftily 


beautifully 


nobly 


sinfully 


perniciously 


wisely 


charmingly 


adequately 


freely 


fearfully 


sorrowfully 


swiftly 


joyfully 


admirably 


slowly 


cheerfully 


violently 


greatly 


wofully 


uniformly 


gently 


selfishly 


exquisitely 


badly 
4 


cunningly 





74 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The words well, ill, hard, fast, loud, and some others 
are used, both as adjectives and as adverbs. It is not diffi- 
cult to make the distinction. 

When used to modify nouns, they are adjectives, as: 

Ex. — A well man. — Webster's Dictionary. 

Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake? — 

Genesis xliii, 27. 
It was well with us in Egypt. — Numbers xi, 18. 
Your friends are well. — Shakespeare. 
He followed the fortunes of that family and was well 

(in favor) with Henry the Fourth. — Dryden. 

There's some ill planet reigns. — Shakespeare. 

That's an ill phrase. — Shakespeare. 

Ill ways, ill markets, ill neighbors. — Bacon. 

He is very ill. 

An ill wind. — John Tusser, an English author. 

A loud noise, a loud voice. 

A fast horse, a fast lock. 

A hard apple, a hard time. 

When used to modify verbs, they are adverbs, as: 

He writes icell. 

Ill fares the land. — Goldsmith. 

They sing loud. 

The horse runs fast. 

She works hard. 

Well is used more frequently as an adverb than as an 
adjective. 

Ill is not used so much as an adjective in America as it 
is in England. — See Alfred Ayres, in "The Verbalist." 

Note. — Both well and ill are used as predicate adjec- 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 



tives, perhaps more frequently than as modifiers, though, 
as it has been seen, they are used in both constructions. 

Under the head of adverbs of manner may be classed 
such words as: headlong, helter-skelter, pell-mell, asunder, 
lengthwise, and some others. 

Adverbs of Degree and of Quantity. 

Adverbs of degree and of quantity answer the question, 
how much? 

Ex. — It is very cold. 

You knew it well 



Among the adverbs of degree and quantity in constant 
use are the following: 



as 


almost 


somewhat 


tolerably 


so 


little 


however 


exceedingly 


too 


vastly 


scarcely 


excessively 


quite 


greatly 


nearly 


eminently 


much 


hardly 


entirely 


extremely 


more 


wholly 


equally 


sufficiently 


most 


rather 


partially 


altogether 


less 


very 


largely 


especially 


least 






absurdly 



Adverbs of degree and of quantity are used to limit 
adjectives and other adverbs. 



Modal Adverbs. 

Some adverbs modify an entire clause, and, sometimes, 
even an entire sentence. 

These adverbs are called modal adverbs, because they 
modify the manner of the assertion. 



76 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

They give peculiar shades of meaning, affecting the 
degree of certainty or of uncertainty with which a state- 
ment is made. 

Begilining with absolute denial, they may be arranged 
as follows: 

Nay, no, not, no wise. 

Possibly. 

Perhaps, may be, likely, perchance, peradventure, may- 
hap, haply, etc. 

Probably. 

Yea, yes, verily, truly, surely, indeed, doubtless, cer- 
tainly, assuredly, forsooth. 

Adverbs of negation are not numerous. 

The first remove from absolute denial is indicated by 
possibly, a word which has no exact synonym in the Ian - 
guage. 

The words in the series beginning with perhaps seem 
to occupy a place midway between absolute denial and 
absolute certainty. 

Probably has no exact synonym in the language. It 
indicates only a slight remove from certainty. 

Adverbs denoting absolute certainty are somewhat 
numerous, and many of them are used with yes to make an 
expression emphatic. 

Note. — In the use of the words possibly and probably, 
great care should be taken to make the proper distinction 
between them. 

Possibly modifies an entire expression by denoting that 
there is only a little evidence of the existence of what is 
stated. 

Probably modifies an entire expression by denoting 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 77 

that there is a great deal of evidence of the existence of 
what is stated. 

In the following sentences, it will be clearly seen that 
the modal adverb in each does not limit one word alone, 
but that it affects the entire sentence. 

Do you think it will rain to-day? 
I do not think it will rain to-day. 

Not, in the sentence above, does not modify think; the 
speaker does not mean to say, I do not think, but, I do not 
think it will rain to-day. 

You will not go to town to-day, only to buy him a 
knife. 

Yes, I will go to town to-day, only to buy him a knife. 

In the last two sentences it is evident that the adverbs 
not and yes belong to the entire expression, and not to one 
word alone. 

The negative modal adverb no, derived from na or ne-a, 
must not be confounded with adjective no, a shortened 
form of none. 

The modal adverbs, excepting not, are usually separated 
by a comma, or commas, from the rest of the sentence. 

Remarks on other Adverbs, 

The words now, well, and why are often used entirely 
out of their ordinary signification, having no grammatical 
relation to other words. They are then called indepen- 
dent adverbs, 

Ex. — Well, I am satisfied with what I have. 

The independent adverb should be separated by a 
comma from the rest of the sentence. 



78 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The word ago is often used as an adverb, as: 
He left long ago. 

It is, however, an old form of the past participle 
(agone) of the verb go, and is generally used as an adjec- 
tive, as: 

He left a year ago. 

He left a long time ago. 

In each of the foregoing sentences, ago modifies the 
noun which it follows. 

When an adverb is used as the subsequent term of a 
preposition, it has the construction of a noun, as: 

For this once. 
From here to there. 

The word there is often used to introduce a sentence, 
when the subject follows the verb; it is then an expletive. 

It is used only for the sake of euphony, and is not to 
be considered or disposed of as an element in analysis. 

The word like is used incorrectly, by some writers, to 
introduce an adverbial element denoting resemblance in 
the manner of performing actions, as: 

It came like a whirlwind. 

Like cannot be used to denote resemblance of actions,, 
therefore, as should be the connective, as: 

It came as a whirlwind (comes). 

Like should be used only in reference to resemblance of 
objects. 

John is like his father. 
My hat is like yours. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. • 79 

Like is generally used as a predicate adjective, and a 
preposition is always understood, followed by a noun in 
the objective. 

In the sentence: 

I am like him, 

it is readily seen that the use of the objective pronoun 
him is correct; it is governed by to understood; but in the 
following: 

I write like him 

the incorrectness will be perceived at once; one cannot 
say I write like him writes — it would be absurd. The fol- 
lowing is the correct form: 

I write as he does, or, as he writes. 

In the following, however, like is an adverb, used to 
modify the entire clause following it: 

Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth 
them that fear him. 

Adverbs may modify a phrase or an entire clause. 

Ex. — Come to me (infinitive unmodified). 
Come near to me. 

Deep into that darkness peering. — Poe. 
Far from the madding crowd's ignoble swag. 

— Gray. 
Mary came after the bell had rung (clause un- 
modified). 
Mary came SOOII after the bell had rung. 



80 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Perhaps he will go there more willingly hereafter. 

It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

He is the subject; it represents that about 

which something is affirmed; it is not 
modified. 

Will go is the simple predicate ; it represents 
what is said of the subject; it is modified 
by there, a simple adverbial word ele- 
ment denoting place; it is modified al><> 
by more willingly, a complex adverbial 
word element denoting manner ; will- 
ingly is the basis; it is modified by more, 
a simple adverbial word element of 
degree. Will go is further modified by 
hereafter, an adverbial word element of 
time. 

The entire sentence is modified by 
perhaps, a simple adverbial word element, 
a modal adverb. 

In the model given above each class of adverbs is 
represented. 

Write ten sentences, each containing two adverbs of 
different classes. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 81 



Adverbial Phrase Element. 



Any phrase joined to a verb, a participle, an adjective, 
or an adverb, to denote time, place, cause, manner, or 
degree, should be called, in analysis, an adverbial phrase 
element. 

The phrase used as an adverbial modifier gives a great 
variety of shades to the meaning of an expression. 

The phrase element is more definite than the word ele- 
ment. In the sentence, 

You must come early, 

the word early is very indefinite; for, to the farmer it may 
mean before sunrise; but, to the man who lives in a town 
or a city, and to people in general, it has a different mean- 
ing. In the following, however, 

You must come at daybreak, 
Yon must come at seven o'clock, 
You must come at noon, 

there is no possibility of mistaking the meaning. 



Adverbial Phrases denoting Time. 

Adverbial phrases denoting time are numerous. The 
different relations of time (antecedent, simultaneous, sub- 
sequent, and duration) are indicated by the following 
prepositions: 



ere 


through 


for 


throughout 


from 


till 


in 


toward 


on 


until 


over 


with 


since 


within 



82 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

at 

after 

before 

between 

betwixt 

by 

during 

Between and betwixt, when used to show a relation of 
time, refer to two points. 

Ex. — I shall leave between daybreak and sunrise. 

During should be used only when an entire period of 
time is referred to. 

Ex. — I shall remain during the month (all the month). 

The words yesterday, to-day, and to-morroxo are, by 
some classed, with the adverbial word elements; but they 
are not adverbs; they are nouns in the objective case, 
governed by a preposition, either expressed or understood. 
With the preposition they form adverbial phrase elements 
of time. 

Ex. — I shall go (on) to-morrow. 

Before the names of the days of the week on is 
usually either expressed or understood, and in, before the 
names of the months and the years, as: 

She came on Monday. 

She will leave in June. 

There were four eclipses in 1883. 

Other prepositions are used with such nouns, also, to 
indicate certain relations, as: 

Since Monday. 
Until June. 
During the week. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 83 

In the following the preposition is omitted: 

It will last a second. 
It will last two hours. 
It will last all day. 
It will last a week. 
It will last two months. 
It will last ten years. 
It will last a lifetime. 
It will last a century. 

Either for or during may be supplied before each 
noun, in the foregoing* sentences. 



MODEL FOE ANALYSIS. 

They zoaited tioo days. 

It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

Tliey is the subject; it represents that about 

which something is affirmed; it is un- 
modified. 

Waited is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

two days, a complex adverbial phrase 
element denoting duration of time / the 
preposition (for or during) is understood; 
days is the basis; it is modified by two, a 
simple adjective word element. 



84 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

EXERCISES UPON THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE DENOTING TIME. 

Go at once. 
Come to-morrow. 
We are to leave at daybreak. 
. The ship sailed last week. 
He remained a month. 
The boy stayed two hours. 
I saw it in 1883. 

She will remain through the year. 
The snow fell throughout the night. 



Write sentences illustrating the use of the phrase ele- 
ment of time. 



Adverbial Phrases Denoting Place. 

Adverbial phrases denoting place are very numerous. 

They add greatly to variety of expression, and, also 
give definitiveness to a statement which the word element 
cannot give, as will be seen by comparison: 

Where is my knife? 

It is here; it is there; it is yonder; — word element. 

No explanation is required to show the indefiniteness 
of the words, here, there, and yonder, for they are house- 
hold words, which cause a great amount of annoyance in 
every-day life. 

In the following ^>hrase elements, the statements are 
definite : 

Where is my hat? 
It is on the table. 
It is in the basket. 
It is under the chair. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 



85 



Adverbial phrases denoting place are introduced by tne 
following prepositions, and some others: 



at 


betwixt 


from 


throughout 


along 


before 


in — into 


up — upon 


against 


behind 


of —out of 


under 


aboard 


beneath 


to 


underneath 


by 


down 


through 


within 


between 






without 



Care should be taken to use the right preposition to 
indicate a relation of place — say, I went into the house, not 
I went in the house. 

Some of the relations of place indicated by prepositions 
are the following: 

At denotes nearness in respect to locality — I was at 
home; I was at the gate; I was at church. 

Along denotes continuation in a horizontal direction — 
I went along the road. 

Toward and towards denote direction in a general 
way — I looked toward the mountain; 1 went towards the 
house. 

To denotes a limit reached — I went to the house. 

Into denotes entrance — I went into the house. 

In and 'within denote locality within limits — I was in 
the house; I was within twenty miles of the place. 



The preposition is sometimes omitted before nouns 
■denoting place — I went (to) home. 



86 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

MODKL FOR ANALYSIS. 

He walked along the shore. 

It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

He is the subject; it is unmodified. 

Walked is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

along the shore, a complex adverbial 
phrase element of place, denoting con- 
tinuation in a horizontal direction; along 
shore is the basis; shore is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word element. 

EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL PHRASES DENOTING PLACE. 

He lived at home. 

He drove along the road. 

She walked before me. 

I can see it from my window. 

John sat in the arm chair. 

Mary walked into the room. 

She walked in the room. 

Henry went through the orchard. 

He lay on the ground. 

They are up stairs. 

The man sat upon the bench. 

The book is on the table. 

Write twenty sentences to illustrate the various rela- 
tions of place indicated by different prepositions. 



the simple sentence. 87 

Adverbial Phrases Demoting Cause, Source and 
Purpose. 

Phrases denoting cause, source, and purpose are not 
numerous. 

They answer questions of what? from what cause or 
source? on account of tohatf why? toherefore? 

Ex. — He died of fever. 

The boy suffered from thirst. 

She did not go for want of means. 

They went to Europe to study in the universities. 

Wherefore is seldom used, excepting in poetry. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

The woman died of grief. 

It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 
It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

Woman, is the simple subject ; it is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word element. 

Died is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

of grief, a simple adverbial phrase ele- 
ment denoting cause. 

EXERCISE UPON - PHRASES DENOTING CAUSE, SOURCE AND 
PURPOSE. 

She wept for joy. 
They suffered from hunger. 
He went to town to buy a hat. 
They traveled for pleasure. 



88 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

He was rewarded for diligence. 

He was punished for disobedience. 

She went to hear the lecture. 

The boy worked for money. 

The boy worked to support the family. 

The girl fainted from fright. 

They died from exposure. 

I went to get a book. 

Note. — The inseparable phrase, in order, followed by 
an infinitive, is often used to show the relations of purpose. 

Ex. — She went to the country in order to rest. 

Write sentences to illustrate the use of adverbial 
phrases of cause, source and purpose. 

Adverbial Phrases Denoting Manner. 

Adverbial phrases of manner are numerous, and they 
vary materially in use. 

Under the head of adverbial phrases denoting manner, 
are classed commonly, phrases denoting: 

TJ ,, . - , ( He managed his business 

How a thing is performed ■{ .,, & 7 

n l I with prudence. 

Accompaniment He went with the Master. 

Agency It was built by Solomon. 

fit is said by astronomers 

. ., ., / that there will be four 

Authority < ,. ,, 

J eclipses in the year 

[ 1883. 

i' He succeeded by fraud. 

Means -< She became independent 

by industry. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 89 

fThe tree was killed by 

T , , liqhtninq. 

Instrument < ^ \ ■ ■> J , •,, ,7 

] 1 he bird was killed by an 

[ arrow. 
Measure of time John is ten years old. 

Measure of length or distance., -j ™ e rod ^ four feet long. 
CT ( It is six miles farther. 

Degree She is cautious to excess. 

In phrases denoting age or measurement, the prepo- 
sition is seldom expressed. 

In the sentence, John is ten years old, the adjective old 
is modified by ten years, an adverbial phrase element 
denoting measure of time; the preposition by is under- 
stood, — by ten years. 

And in the sentence, The rod is four feet long, the 
adjective long is modified by four feet, an adverbial phrase 
element, denoting measure of length; and in the sentence, 
It is four miles farther, the adjective farther is modified 
by six miles, an adverbial phrase element denoting meas- 
urement of distance, equivalent to by six miles. 

In elements of measurement, both of time, length and 
distance, the idea of degree is prominent. 

Adverbial phrases denoting modes of travel or convey- 
ance are classed with those of manner, as: 

on foot; on horseback; by railroad; by steamer; by 
express; in a wagon; in a carriage; in a balloon. 

Phrases used as modal adverbs give great emphasis: 
Ex. — by no means, by all means, 

in no wise, without doubt, 

in no case, with certainty, 

on no condition, beyond doubt, 
in great doubt, in reality, 

in fact. 
4* 



90 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

All phrases of asseveration and appeal, and every 
expression having the nature of an oath, are classed under 
the head of modal adverbial phrases, as: 

Asseveration, On my honor ; on my xoord of honor. 
Appeal, By your love for your country; by the 

memory of your mother; by all you 

hold dear. 
Oath, By Jupiter; by the immortal gods. 

By Mohammed, Prophet of Allah. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

On my honor, I have told you everything about it. 

It is a sentence; it is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

It is a declarative sentence; it makes an affirmation. 

I is the subject, unmodified. 

Have told is the simple predicate; it is modified 
by everything about it, a complex 
objective word element (direct object), 
everything is the basis, modified by the 
simple adjective phrase element, about 
it. 

Have told is modified, also, by you, 
an indirect objective phrase element. 

The entire expression is modified 
by the inseparable phrase, on my 
honor, an adverbial phrase element of 
asseveration. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 91 

EXERCISE UPON ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF MANNER. 

He conducted the campaign with great skill. 
The men completed the work with promptness. 
The children went to church regularly with their 

parents. 
A wall six feet high was built around it. 
The Temple was built by Solomon. 
A boy killed a bird loith a stone. 
John killed an owl with an arrow. 
The fact is stated by a London newspaper. 
He is four years older. 
It is three miles farther. 
He succeeded by industry and perseverance. 

Note. — Adverbial phrases denoting manner, showing 
how anything is done, are, the most of them, equivalent to 
adverbs of manner, as: 

with prudence --prudently. 
with skill ^skillfully. 

Write sentences to illustrate the adverbial phrase ele- 
ment in its various uses. 



EXERCISE UPON SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

1. Praise ye the Lord! 

2. Procrastination is the thief of time. — Young. 

3. It was an eve of Autumn's holiest mood. — Pollok. 

4. Man's inhumanity to man 

Makes countless thousands mourn. — Burns. 
o. He became eminent. 
8. It was a rosy boy, a little copy of his faithful sire. 



92 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

7. Well had he slept, never to waken more! 

8. The huge pile sunk down at once into the opening 
earth. 

9. Nay, good my lord, try him. 

10. The following night the moon took her station still 
higher. 

11. The Lord is my shepherd. 

12. Nature seemed 

In silent contemplation, to adore 

Its Maker. — Pollok. 

13. Concentration is the secret of strength. 

14. The heavens declare the glory of God. 

15. I am going, O Nokomis, 

On a long and distant journey, 

To the portals of the Sunset. — Hiawatha. 

16. All was silent again. — Longfellow. 

17. The conscious stone to beauty grew. — Emerson. 

18. I am monarch of all. — Oowper. 

19. Come gentle spring! — Thomson. 

20. Go! 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I. — The subject of a finite verb must be in the 
nominative case. 

Rule II. — The noun or pronoun connected to the sub- 
ject of a finite verb, by the copula, must be in the nomina- 
tive case. 

Rule III. — The adjective connected by the copula to 
the subject must represent some characteristic property of 
the subject. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 93 

Rule IV. — The verbal attribute connected to the sub- 
ject by the copula must represent some action or state 
natural to the subject. 

Rule V. — The attribute of a proposition, whether sub- 
stantive adjective, or verbal, must agree with the subject, 
when joined to it by a copulative verb. 

Rule VI. — A verb must agree with its subject in per- 
son and number: 

1. The verb must be plural when the members 
of a compound subject are taken conjointly. 

2. The verb must be singular, when the mem- 
bers of the compound subject are taken separately, 
if the members are each in the singular number. 

3. If one of the members is plural, and the 
other, or others, singular, the verb must agree with 
the one next to it. 

Rule VII. — Adjectives are used to limit nouns only. 

Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun joined to another 
noun, to denote possession, must be in the possessive case. 

Rule IX. — A noun or pronoun used with another noun 
or pronoun, to identify, or to explain, or by way of empha- 
sis, is put by apposition in the same case as that of the 
noun which it limits. 

Rule X. — Participles are used to modify nouns and 
pronouns, but they retain the signification of the verb, and 
may be modified as the verb. 

Rule XI. — Pronouns must agree in gender, number 
and person with their antecedent. 



94 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Rule XII. — A noun or a pronoun used to complete the 
meaning" of a transitive verb, or the participles of a tran- 
sitive verb, must be in the objective case. 

Rule XIII. — Adverbs are used to modify verbs, parti- 
ciples, adjectives and other adverbs. 

Rule XIV. — Prepositions are used to show the relation 
of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentence. 

Rule XV. — The noun or pronoun governed by the 
preposition must be in the objective case. 

Rule XVI. — Coordinate conjunctions are used to join 
elements of the same rank. 

Rule XVII. — Subordinate conjunctions are used to 
join elements of different rank. 

Rule XVIII. — The infinitive has the signification and 
modifications of the verb, but is used as a noun or an 

adjective. 

Rule XIX. — Independent elements, including inter- 
jections, have no grammatical relation to the sentence 
which they accompany. 

RULES OF ANALYSIS. 

Rule I. — Any word, whether it be an adjective, a noun, 
or a pronoun, when joined to the subject to limit or qualify 
it, must be called, in analysis, an adjective word element. 

Rule II. — A noun or a personal pronoun in apposition 
with another pronoun, must be in the same case; and, in 
analysis, it should be called an adjective word element. 

Rule III. — A noun or a pronoun used to limit a noun 
in any construction, by denoting possession, must be called, 
in analysis, an adjective word element. 



RULES OP ANALYSIS. 95 

Rule IV. — A preposition and its object, or an infinitive 
may be used to limit the meaning of a noun, and in analy- 
sis should be called an adjective phrase element. 

Rule V. — A word used to complete the meaning of a 
transitive verb or its participles, is in the objective case, 
and, in analysis, should be called an objective word ele- 
ment. 

Rule VI. — A noun or a pronoun used with a preposition 
to complete the meaning of a verb, should be called, in 
analysis, an objective phrase element (indirect object). 

Rule VII . — When a copulative verb in the active voice 
is followed by a direct object, and some attribute of the 
direct object, the two combined form a double object, 
which should be called, in analysis, a double objective ele- 
ment. 

Rule VIII. — A word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb by denoting time, place, manner, degree, should be 
called, in analysis, an adverbial word element. 

Rule IX. — Any phrase joined to a verb, a participle, 
an adjective, or an adverb, to denote time, place, cause, 
manner, or degree, should be called, in analysis, an adver- 
bial phrase element. 

Rule X. — Whenever a substantive clause is used as 
the subject of a proposition, it should be called, in analysis, 
a clause subject, and should be disposed of as a noun. 

Rule XL — Whenever the substantive clause is used as 
the attribute of a proposition, it should be called, in analy- 
sis, a substantive clause attribute, and should be disposed 
of as a noun. 

Rule XII. — When a clause is used to modify a noun or 
a pronoun, or any substantive expression, it should be 
called, in analysis, an adjective clause element. 



yb SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Rule XIII. — When an adverb is used to join a depend- 
ent clause to a noun in the principal proposition, it should 
be called a relative adverb; and the clause so joined should 
be called, in analysis, an adjective clause element. 

Rule XIV. — When a clause is used to limit a noun by 
denoting apposition, it should be called, in analysis, an 
adjective clause element. 

Rule XV. — When a substantive clause is used to com- 
plete the meaning of a verb, it is in the objective case, 
and, in analysis, should be called an objective clause ele- 
ment. 

Rule XVI. — When a clause is used to modify the 
meaning of a verb, a participle, an adjective or an adverb, 
by denoting time, place, cause, manner, or degree, it should 
be called, in analysis, an adverbial clause element. 

Rule XVII. — When a sentence contains an abridged 
proposition, it should be called a simple sentence, unless it 
contains a subordinate proposition also. 

Rule XVIII. — When a sentence is composed of inde- 
pendent propositions connected by and, or, nor, it should 
be called, in analysis, a compound sentence. 

Rule XIX. — When a sentence consists of a compound 
subject and a simple predicate, or of a simple subject and 
a compound predicate, it should be called, in analysis, a 
partially compound sentence. 



THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 97 

THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 

A Clause is a group of words containing a subject 
and a, predicate used as a sentence element. 

The term clause should not be applied to the principal 
proposition in a sentence, but should be restricted to a 
proposition which does not express an entire thought. 

A clause should not be called a sentence, as it is an 
element only; but a sentence is. the complete expression of 
a thought in words, either spoken or written. 

The clause element may enter into the construc- 
tion of a sentence, as: 

1. Subject. 

2. Attribute. 

3. Adjective element. 

4. Objective element. 

5. Adverbial element. 

Clauses are divided according to their use in the con- 
struction of sentences into three classes: 

1. Substantive Clauses. 

2. Adjective Clauses. 

3. Adverbial Clauses. 

In the construction of sentences, the clause is used as 
the part of speech for which it is named, is used. 

The substantive clause is used as a noun: 

1. Subject nominative: 

That you are doing your duty is evident. 

2. Predicate nominative: 

The report was, that the ship was lost in a storm. 



98 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

3. Apposition: 

The report, that the ship was lost in a storm, 
was false. 

4. Object of a verb: 

I think that the lecture will be entertaining. 

5. Object of a preposition: 

Save that from yonder ivy-mantled toioer, etc. 

The adjective clause is used to limit the meaning of a 
noun, and, in many cases, may be changed to an adjective 
without changing the meaning. 

Ex. — A boy who is idle will never excel, — an idle 
boy will never excel. 

An adverbial clause is used to modify the meaning of 
verbs, participles, adjectives and adverbs. 

Ex. — Go tohen the sun rises. 

He, leaving before the sun rose, did not see the 
burning of the mill. 
You are taller than your brother. 
They fought as bravely as their commanders. 



Substantive Clause Used as Subject. 



Whenever a substantive clause is used as the subject of 
a proposition, it should be called, in analysis, a clause 
subject, and should be disposed of as a noun. 

The clause subject should be treated as a single 
word, until after the sentence is analyzed; then it should 
be resolved into its component parts. 



THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 99 

A sentence containing a clause subject is not a com- 
plex sentence, unless it contain a subordinate clause used 
as a modifier, for the subject cannot be subordinate to any 
part of the sentence. 

The clause subject is commonly introduced by that, as: 
That they are not satisfied is evident. 

Any kind of clause, however, may be used substan- 
tively, as subject, if it is a quotation, as: 

Why are you dissatisfied? was my question. 
Where thou goest, I will go, was the reply. 

The expletive it is often used to introduce sentences 
having clause subjects, as: 

It is evident that they are dissatisfied. 
The clause subject should not be separated from the 
predicate by any mark of punctuation, when introduced by 
that. 

MODEL. 

That the world is full of beauty cannot be denied. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

That the world 

is full of beauty is the simple subject; it is 
unmodified. 

Can be denied is the simple predicate. 

Not is a modal adverb; it modifies 

the entire assertion. 

The clause subject, That the world is full of beauty, is 
introduced by that, a word which has no modifying power. 
It is not a connective, for the subject of a proposition can- 
not be subordinate to any part of a sentence. 



100 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Wovld is the simple subject; it is modified by the, 
a simple adjective word element. 

Is full is the simple predicate. Ts is the copula, 
and full is the adjective attribute. Full 
is modified by of beauty, an objective 
phrase element. 



EXERCISE UPON THE CLAUSE AS SUBJECT. 

1. Oh, where shall rest be found? has been the cry of 
many a weary soul. 

2. When one should be silent is not easily decided. 

3. That I should have taken your advice is now very- 
clear. 

4. Whether he will remain until his brother arrives is 
doubtful. 

5. Where have you been? was his question. 

6. That John has acted very indiscreetly is not to be 
denied. 

7. May I leave the room? was his request. 

8. That the Scriptures were given by inspiration is 
very evident to one who is earnestly seeking for truth. 

9. That the Creator intended to make his creatures 
happy is proved by his causing the land and the waters, 
the air, and even the lightning to serve them. 

10. " I have been where you sent me " was my reply. 

11. That he should have acted in such a way is very 
strange. 

12. It is decided that the journey will be too long for 
her. 

13. It is hoped that the change will benefit him. 

14. It is said that he spent a large fortune. 

16. That he has succeeded so well is surprising. 



THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 101 



EXERCISES. 



Write ten sentences containing clause subject. 
Substantive Clause as Attribute. 



Whenever the substantive clause is used as the attribute 
of a proposition, it should be called, in analysis, a sub- 
stantive clause attribute. 

The clause attribute is joined to the subject by 
the copula, just as a word or a phrase attribute is joined. 

Ex. — My opinion is,that he deserves the reward for 
good conduct. 

The word that is commonly used to introduce the 
clause attribute; but it has no conjunctive force; it is used 
merely to introduce the clause. 

Direct quotations are frequently used as clause attri- 
butes. 

Ex. — The question was, Where did you find it? 

Sentences containing clause attributes are simple sen- 
tences, if no clause used as a modifier is found in them. 

The clause attribute should be separated from the 
copula by a comma. 



102 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



MODEL I. 



The song was, Oh where shall rest be found. 

It is a simple sentence; it contains but one proposition. 

It is a mixed sentence; it consists of a declarative 
proposition, and an interrogative proposition. 

The first part of the sentence, including the predicate 
verb (copula) is declarative; the predicate nominative is 
interrogative. 

The predicate nominative, or substantive attribute, 
Oh, where shall rest be found? is direct quotation. 



Song 



Was, Oh where 
shall rest be 
found ? 



Oh where shall 
rest be found ? 



Rest 



is the subject ; it is that of 
which the substantive attribute, 
Oh, where shall rest be found, 
is asserted by the copula, was. 

It is modified by the, a 
simple adjective word element. 



is the predicate ; was is the 
copula; Oh where shall rest be 
found? is the substantive at- 
tribute, used to represent the 
subject in another form. 

The predicate is not modi- 
fied. 

the attribute of the proposition, 
when considered alone, is an 
interrogative sentence; it is 
used to ask a question, 
is the subject; it is unmodified. 



THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 103 

Shall be found is the simple predicate; it is 
that which is asserted of the 
subject it is modified by; where, 
an adverbial word element de- 
noting place; it is also used to 
ask the question. 

Oh is an interjection ; it has no 

grammatical relation to any 
word in the sentence, yet its 
use, simultaneous with the sen- 
tence, shows the emotional 
nature of the question. 

MODEL II. 

His complaint was, that the cattle had destroyed his field 
of com. 

It is a simple declarative sentence. 

Complaint is the simple subject; it 

is modified by his, a 
simple adjective word 
element. 

Was, that the cattle 
had destroyed his 

field of com is the simple predicate; 

it is unmodified. Was 
is the copula; that the 
cattle had destroyed his 
field of corn, is the sub- 
stantive attribute. 

Cattle is the simple subject of 

the substantive clause; it 
is modified by the, a 
simple adjective word 
element. 



104 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Mad destroyed is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by the complex direct 
objective word element, his field 
of com, of which field is the 
basis, limited by his, a simple 
adjective word element, and, 
also, by of com, a simple adjec- 
tive phrase element. 

That is used simply to introduce the 

substantive clause. 



EXERCISE UPON THE CLAUSE AS ATTRIBUTE. 

1. The important question now is, Where shall I go? 

2. His threat was, that he would punish the * boy 
severely. 

3. My desire is, that you remain until next week. 

4. His text was, The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not 
want. 

5. John's excuse will be, that the key could not be 
found. 

6. The telegram was, " We have crossed the mountains 
without difficulty." 

7. Our expectation is, that the steamboat will arrive to- 
night. 

8. Her remark was, "I cannot endure the severity of 
the Northern winters." 

9. My hope is, that the voyage will benefit her health. 

10. The result will be that he will lose his position. 

11. The command was, Shoidder arms! 

12. The consequence will be that all his friends will 
desert him. 



THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 105 

13. My question was, "Why did you not return 
sooner?" 

14. For the last hundred years, one of the first facts 
taught to any child of American birth is, that Jefferson 
wrote the Declaration of Independence. 

15. The wonder is, that the skies should continue so 
resplendent for months. 

16. The statement of the philosophers is, that the 
phenomenon cannot be accounted for. 

17. The superstition is, that it is an omen of evil. 

Complex Sentences. 

Complex sentences consist of at least two propo- 
sitions, one of which is an independent or principal propo- 
sition, and one dependent or subordinate. 

Ex. — I must go, if you cannot. 

In complex sentences, the dependent proposition is 
always a modifier of the principal proposition, or of some 
part of it; and should be called a subordinate clause. 

Ex. — The nuts which the children are gathering 
tinder the tree yonder are chestnuts. 

In this sentence the clause introduced by which modi- 
fies nuts; but in the following, the dependent clause modi- 
fies the entire principal proposition. 

Ex. — Praise ye the Lord, for He is good; for His 
mercy endureth forever. 

Complex sentences may contain several subordinate 
clauses; and these clauses may be of different kinds. 

Ex. — I told him that he must return at noon because 
the man who wanted to employ him would 
be here at that time. 



106 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

In the sentence given there are four propositions, one 
principal and three subordinate; an objective clause, intro- 
duced by that; an adverbial clause introduced by because, 
and an adjective clause introduced by who. 

The clause used as subject, and the clause used as at- 
tribute, as it has been explained before, are not modifiers, 
therefore they do not make a sentence complex. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

Adjective Clauses Introduced by Relative Pronouns. 

rule XII. 

When a clause is used to modify a noun or a pronoun, 
or any substantive expression, it should be called, in analy- 
sis, an adjective clause element. 

Many of the clauses used to modify nouns are intro- 
duced by relative pronouns, which relate to some noun or 
pronoun in the principal proposition, called the antecedent. 

Relative pronouns are never found in independent 
propositions; but they are sometimes retained, when the 
subordinate clause is abridged. 

Ex. — I have no friend in whom I can confide (full form). 

I have no friend in whom to confide (abridged form). 

The simple relative pronouns are: ivllO, which, 
that, ivhat, as, and but. 

In the construction of sentences, xoho is used to refer 
to persons only, except in the case of personification. 

Ex. — O Moon, thou who art queen of the night. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 107 

Which refers to things. It is used, also, to refer to 
persons taken collectively, and in interrogative sentences. 

Ex. — The committee which was appointed. 
Which boy took the prize? 

That may be used with equal propriety to refer to per- 
sons or things. 

Ex. — I saw the man that sold the horse. 

I saw the money that he paid for the horse. 

In the construction of sentences, that is to be preferred 
to who or which, in the following cases: 

1. After who, for the sake of euphony. 

Ex. — Who that sees the glorious heavens by night, 
etc. 

2. After, very, same, all. 

Ex. — He is the very man that I wish to see. 

This is the same book that you borrowed. 
These are all that you need. 

3. After adjectives in the superlative degree. 

Ex. — These are the best peaches that I ever saw. 

4. When the pronoun it is used as subject, to represent 
a noun or a pronoun of any person, number, or gender, 
used as a substantive attribute. 

Ex. — It was John that broke the pitcher. 

It was my neighbor's chickens that spoiled my 
garden. 

5. When both persons and things are referred to. 

Ex. — The men and the horses that were on the boat 
were saved. 



108 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

What refers to things, but it may be used as an inter- 
rogative adjective to inquire for persons. 

Ex. — What bovs were found in the orchard? 



What is always a word of double construction, when it 
is used as a relative pronoun. 

As, after many, much, same, and such, is a relative pro- 
noun. 

Ex. — He gave me as many as I wanted. 
I took as much as I could use. 
It is the same as it was before. 
And the Lord added to the church daily, such 

as should be saved. — Bible. 
Such as I have give I thee. — Bible. 

Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower 
The moping owl doth to the moon complain 
Of such as wandering near her secret bower, 
Molest her ancient, solitary reign. 

The word as, in the third line of the stanza above, is a 
relative pronoun, used to join the subordinate clause to 
such, its antecedent, and it is also, the subject of the verb 
molest. 

When but is used as a relative pronoun it gives a nega- 
tive idea to the clause which it introduces. 

Ex. — There is no rose but has its thorn =There is 
no rose which has not its thorn. 

The word but, in the following, is used in two clauses 
as a relative pronoun. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 109 

There is no lily of field or vale 
But shows the touch of Art Divine, 
No sparrow that flies o'er hill or dale 
But sings protection for me and mine. 

As and but are both restrictive, therefore they should 
not be separated from the antecedent by a comma. 



Relative Pronouns when Restrictive and when 
Not Restrictive. 

The Relative Pronoun is said to be restrictive 

when the clause which it introduces cannot be changed to 
an independent clause, without a change in the meaning. 

It limits a noun in the same way that an adjective word 
element limits it. 

Ex. — Plants which have been kept in a greenhouse 
cannot endure even the slight frosts of 
Spring, dp 
Greenhouse plants cannot endure even the 
slight frosts of Spring. 

No comma should be placed before the relative pro- 
noun when it introduces a restrictive clause. 
That and as are always restrictive. 

Ex. — The house that I bought yesterday is a cottage. 
I will read such books as you select for me. 

Many clauses, however, introduced by relative pro- 
nouns, have no restrictive force. 

Such clauses are sometimes called continuative, that is, 
they are used to add something to the sentence; and the 
relative pronoun, introducing the clause, is equivalent to 
and he, and it. 



110 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — He bought a fine horse, which he gave to his 
son==He bought a fine horse, and he gave 
it to his son. 

When the clause is not restrictive, a comma should be 
placed before the relative pronoun. When the relative 
clause is restrictive, the antecedent of the pronoun is often 
modified by some word used as a correlative of the pronoun. 

The following are correlatives so used: " 

The, this, that, these, those, same, such. 

Ex. — The horse which he gave to his son is a fine one. 

This book that lies on the table was given to me by 
your brother. 

The adjective clause should, if possible, be placed near 
the word it modifies. 

Ex. — Friendship which^ows from the heart cannot 
be frozen by adversity. 
It is the friendship of the heart that cannot 
be frozen by adversity. 

The second sentence is ambiguous on account of the 
position of the relative pronoun. 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

MODEL I. 

Blessed is he that considereth the poor. 
It is a complex declarative sentence. 
Blessed is he is the principal proposition. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



Ill 



That considereth 
the poor 

He 



Is Messed 



That 



Considereth 



is the subordinate proposition. 

is the simple subject of the 
principal proposition ; it is 
modified by that considereth 
the poor, an adjective clause 
element. 

is the predicate; is, is the 
copula, and blessed is the ad- 
jective attribute. 

is the subject of the subordi- 
nate proposition; it is a rela- 
tive pronoun, and is used also 
as a connective. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
limited by the poor, a complex 
objective word element; poor 
,is the basis, modified by the, a 
simple adjective word element. 



MODEL II. 

It was not the loss of my property that troubled me. 
It is a complex declarative sentence. 

It was not the loss 

of my property is the principal proposition. 

It is the simple subject; it is 

modified by that troubled 
me, an adjective clause ele- 
ment. 



112 



Was loss 



That 



Troubles 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

is the simple predicate. Was is the 
copula, and- loss is the substantive at- 
tribute. Loss is modified by the, a 
s mple adjective word element, and by 
of my property, a complex adjective 
phrase element ; of property is the 
basis; property is modified by my, a 
simple adjective word element. 

is the subject of the subordinate 
clause; it is used also as a connective. 

is the simple predicate; it is modified 
by me, a simple objective word ele- 
ment. 



MODEL III. 



There's not a string attuned to mirth, 
But has its chord in melancholy. — Hood. 

It is a complex declarative sentence. 

There's not a string attuned to mirth, is the principal 
proposition. 

But has its chord in melancholy, is the subordi.iate 
proposition. 

String is the simple subject of the principal 
proposition; it is modified by a, an adjec- 
tive word element, and by attuned to mirth, 
a complex adjective word element, parti- 
cipial construction. Attuned is the basis; 
it is modified by to mirth, an adverbial 
phrase element. 

String is modified also by the adjective 
clause element, But has its chord in melan- 
choly. 



THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 113 

Is is the predicate; it denotes existence only. 

The assertion is modified by not, a negative 
modal adverb. There is an expletive, used to 
introduce the sentence. 



But 



is the subject of the subordinate proposition; 
it is unmodified. It is a relative pronoun; it 
has a negative signification, and is equivalent 
to that not. 

Has is the simple predicate; it is modified by its 
chord, a complex objective word element; chord 
is the basis, modified by its, a simple adjective 
word element. Has is also modified by in 
melancholy, a simple adverbial word element 
denoting place. 



MODEL IV. 

He found them prosperous and happy, which surprised 
him greatly. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of 
two propositions, one principal, and one subordinate propo- 
sition. 

He found them p>rosp>erous and happy, is the principal 
proposition; which surprised him greatly is the subordi- 
nate proposition. 

He is the subject of the principal proposition, 
unmodified. 



114 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Found is the simple predicate; it is modified 

by them prosperous and happy, a 
double objective element; them is the 
direct object; 2 :>ros P erous an d happy 
is a compound adjective* attribute, a 
predicate objective. The entire propo- 
sition is the antecedent of which, (his 
finding them prosperous and happy 
was what surprised him,) and it is 
modified by which surprised him 
greatly, a simple adjective clause ele- 
ment. 



Which is the subject of the subordinate 

clause; it is unmodified. 

Surprised is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by him, a simple objective word 
element, direct object; and by greatly, 
a simple adverbial word element de- 
notino- 



Compound Relative Pronouns Used to Connect 
Adjective Clauses. 

The Compound Relative Pronouns are who- 
ever, whosoever, whoso, whatever 9 whatso- 
ever, whichever, whichsoever. 

These words, when used only as relative pronouns, have 
a double construction, and represent both the antecedent 
and the relative. 

The antecedent part of the word belongs to the princi- 
pal proposition, and the relative part introduces the adjec- 
tive clause. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 115 

Ex. — I will send you whatever you want,=I will 
send you anything which you want. 

Note. — It will be seen that the word whatever is used 
indefinitely, and, also, that it expresses the idea with more 
force and elegance than the equivalent any thing tohich. 

All the Compound Relatives are used to express uni- 
versality. 

Whoever =any one who. 
Whatever =any thing which. 

Whichever =either or any of these or those things 
which. 

Whatever and tohichever are frequently used as adjec- 
tives, but they do not lose their office as connectives. 

Ex. — They will appreciate whatever kindness you 
may show them. 

Whoever , lohatever and whichever are frequently used 
with an adversative signification. 

Ex. — Whatever the salary may be, I shall not accept 

the situation. 
Whoever may have told you, it is not true. 
Whichever you may give him, he will not be 

satisfied. 

In analysis, these clauses should be called adverbial 
adversative clauses. 

By some authors, they are called concessive clauses. 



Whatever you give will be thankfully received. 
This is a complex, declarative sentence. 



116 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



The antecedent part of 
whatever (equiva- 
lent to the thing or 
the things 



Will be received 



You 



Give 



is the simple subject of the 
principal proposition ; it is 
modified by the adjective clause 
element, which is introduced 
by the relative part. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by thankfully, an ad- 
verbial element of manner, 
is the subject of the subordi- 
nate proposition; it is unmodi- 
fied. 



is the predicate; it is modified 
by the relative part of the word 
whatever, an objective word 
element, which is used also as a 
connective. 

Note. — Some authors maintain that such words as the 
above should not be separated into two parts; but they 
fail to give a satisfactory analysis of sentences containing 
them. 



EXERCISES UPON THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE ELEMENT, INTRO- 
DUCED BY A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

1. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel 
of the ungodly. — Psalm I. 

2. Ye whose hearts are fresh and simple, 
Who have faith in God and Nature, 

****** 
Listen to this simple story. — Hiawatha. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 117 

3. I picked up these particulars in the course of a 
journey, which I made some time afterwards. 

4. I pity the man who can travel from Dan to Beer- 
sheba, and say "'TVs all barren" 

5. Yonder snow-white cloud that floats in the ether 

above me 
Seems like a hand that is pointing and beckoning 
over the ocean. — Longfellow. 

6. It was a celebrated traveler that related the strange 
occurrence. 

7. It must have been a terrible hurricane that caused 
the destruction that we see before us. 

8. Whoever left it will call for it. 

9. Whichever path you take will lead you to the vil- 
lage. 

10. The house, in which I live, is a hundred years old. 

11. The long galleries were crowded with such an audi- 
ence as has rarely excited the fears of an orator. 

12. There's nothing bright above, below, 
From flowers that bloom to stars that glow, 
But in its light my soul can see 

Some features of the Deity. 

13. Broad and brown was the face that under the 

Spanish Sombrero, 
Gazed on the peaceful scene. — Longfellow. 

14. The man who alarmed the children this morning, by 
appearing so suddenly before them, at the door, was an 
Indian chief. 



118 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

15. You may have whatever you want. 

16. A delightful impression is made upon the stranger 
who on a bright June day enters the picturesque and 
charming city of Stockholm. — Du Chaillu. 

17. The lofty banner next is seen dispread, 
Which bears St. Peter's keys and mitred crown. 

— Tasso. 

18. How many a poor one's blessing went 
With thee beneath the low green tent 
Whose curtain never outward swings! 

— Whittier. 



Write twenty sentences containing adjective clauses 
introduced by relative pronouns. 

Select sentences from a reader containing adjective 
clauses introduced by but and as, used as relative pro- 
nouns. 



Adjective Clauses Introduced by a Relative 
Adverb. 

rule xiii. 

When an adverb is used to join a dependent clause to a 
noun in the principal proposition^ it should be called a 
relative adverb, and the clause so joined should be 
called, in analysis, an adjective clause element. 

Clauses introduced by relative adverbs are always re- 
strictive, and should not be separated from the principal 
proposition by any mark of punctuation. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 119 

Relative adverbs are equivalent to relative pronouns 
preceded by a preposition. 

Ex. — I visited the house where he once lived, =1 visited 
the house in which he once lived. 

The use of the relative adverb as a connective of adjec- 
tive clauses adds smoothness and beauty to language. 



MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Shiloh, the place where Joshua set up the tabernacle, 
and whence he sent surveyors to make a partition of the 
land, was situated between Lebonah and Bethel. 

It is a complex declarative sentence. 
It consists of three propositions, one principal, and two 
subordinate. 

Shiloh, the place was situated between Lebonah and 
Bethel, is the principal proposition. 

Where Joshua set up the tabernacle, and whence he 
sent surveyors to make a partition of the land are the sub- 
ordinate propositions. 

Shiloh is the simple subject of the principal 
proposition. It is modified by the com- 
plex adjective word element, by apposition, 
the place where Joshua set up the taber- 
nacle, and whence he sent surveyors to 
make a partition of the land; place is the 
basis; it is modified by the compound ad- 
jective clause element, where Joshua set up 
the tabernacle, and whence hi sent surveyors 
to make a partition of the land. 



120 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Where Joshua 
set up the 
tabernacle 



is the first member of 
the compound adjective 
clause element. It is in- 
troduced by the relative 
adverb where. 



Joshua 



Set up 



Wlience he sent sur- 
veyors to make a 
partition of the 
land 



He 



is the simple subject; it 
is unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; 
it is modified by the tab- 
ernacle, a complex ob- 
jective word element; 
tabernacle is the basis; 
it is modified by the y a 
simple adjective word 
element. 



is the second member of 
the compound adjective 
clause element. It is 
joined to the first mem- 
ber by the coordinate 
copulative conjunction, 
and. It is introduced 
by the relative adverb 
whence. 

is the simple subject; it 
is unmodified. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 121 

Setlt is the simple predicate; it is 

modified, first, by surveyors, a 
simple objective word element; it 
is also modified by to make a par- 
tition of the land, a complex ad- 
verbial phrase element, denoting- 
purpose; to make is the basis, 
modified by a partition of the 
land, a complex objective word 
element; partition is the basis; it 
is modified by the simple adjective 
word element «/ and also by the 
complex adjective clause element, 
of the land', of land is the basis; 
land is modified by the, a simple 
adjective word element. 

Was situated is the simple predicate of the 
principal proposition; it is modi- 
fied by between Lebonah and 
Bethel, an adverbial element of 
place. 

EXERCISES UPON THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE INTRODUCED BY 
A RELATIVE ADVERB. 

1. And she's gone to the Lake of the Dismal Swamp, 
Where, all night long, by a firefly lamp, 

She paddles her white canoe. — Moore. 

2. Blest be that spot where cheerful guests retire 
To pause from toil and trim their evening fire. 

— Goldsmith. 

3. Patmos, where the apostle John wrote the Apoca- 
lypse, is a small island in the Egean Sea. 



122 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

4. Show me the place where the wild flowers grow. 

5. The hour when I shall depart is very near. 

6. The time when the boat will arrive is very uncertain. 

7. I seek an asylum where I may end my days in peace. 

8. The time comes, at last, when the sun disappears 

entirely from the sight, 
when the heavens appear in a blaze of light and 

glory, 
And the stars and moon pale before the Aurora 

Borealis. — Land of the Midnight Sun. 

9. I long for a home where sorrow never comes! 

10. Is there no spot on earth where the weary soul may 

rest? 

11. The Indian loves the land where the wild fowl builds 
her nest. 

12. I once saw the spot where the battle was fought. 

13. The boat did not land at the time when it was due. 

14. The men who were traveling westward stopped at a 
place where a fire was burning, to rest, and to take a little 
refreshment. 

15. A deep silence reigned in the house, where in times 
past, the halls resounded with the sound of mirth. 

16. I looked down from the mountain into a valley 
where cultivated fields and magnificent gardens met the 
view at every point. 

17. Beautiful is that season of life when we can say, in 
the language of the Scripture: "Thou hast the dew of thy 
youth." 

18. Sublime was the morning that liberty spoke, 

And grand was the moment when Spaniards awoke. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 123 

19. There's a land far away mid the stars (we are told) 
Where they know not the sorrows of time. 

Let the pupil write original sentences, containing ad- 
jective clauses, introduced by relative adverbs, used to 
modify the following words 



table 


moment 


time 


house 


book 


college 


instant 


field 


bed 


state 


city 


forest 


hour 


asylum 


place 


day 



Ex. — It is on the table where the large vase is. 

Select sentences from the reader to illustrate this con- 
struction, i. e., the sentence containing an adjective clause 
introduced by a relative adverb. 



Clauses Used as Adjective Elements by Apposition. 

eule XIV. 

When a clause is used to limit a noun by denoting 
apposition, it should be called, in analysis, an adjective 
clause element. 

Clauses in apposition are often introduced by that J but 
the direct quotation is used, perhaps, as often. 

Ex. — The remark that I had offended him, was 
heard by several of my friends 

Your own words, "I will pay for his educa- 
tion," you seem to have forgotten. 

The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 
But in ourselves, that we are underlings. 



124 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

In the foregoing sentence, the word fault is modified 
by that we are underlings, a clause used as an adjective 
element by apposition. 



MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

There is a deep wisdom in the old maxim that truth 
is to be found in a central point equally remote from 
divergent errors. 

It is a complex declarative sentence. 

There is a deep wisdom in the old maxim is the 
principal proposition. 

That truth is to be found in a central point equally 
distant from divergent errors is the subordinate proposition. 

Wisdom is the simple subject; it is modified by 
deep, a simple adjective word element, 
the complex idea formed by the union of 
the noun wisdom and the adjective deep; 
deep wisdom is modified by the simple 
adjective word element, a. 

Is is the simple predicate; it is used to de- 

note existence. It is modified by in the 
old maxim that truth is to be found, etc., 
an adverbial phrase element, denoting 
place; in maxim is the basis; maxim is 
modified by old, a simple adjective word 
element; and also by the subordinate 
clause That truth is to be found, etc., 
an adjective clause element by appo- 
sition. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



125 



Truth 



is the simple subject; it is un- 
modified. 



Is to be found 



is the simple predicate; is, is the 
copula; it is used to join the at- 
tribute, to be found, to the sub- 
ject truth; the infinitive attribute 
(to be found) is used to denote 
something possible; it is modified 
by in a central point, equally dis- 
tant from divergent errors, a com- 
plex adverbial phrase element; in 
point is the basis; point is modi- 
fied by central, a simple adjective 
word element; the complex idea, 
central point, is modified by a, a 
simple adjective word element. 
Point is modified also by equally 
distant from divergent errors, a 
complex adjective word element; 
(this is equivalent to, which is 
equally distant, etc.); distant is 
the basis ; it is modified by 
equally, a simple adverbial word 
element of degree; distant is 
modified, also, by from divergent 
errors, an adverbial phrase ele- 
ment, from errors is the basis; 
errors is modified by divergent, a 
simple adjective word element 



That 



is a subordinate conjunction, used 
to introduce the clause element. 



126 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



EXERCISES UPON CLAUSES IN APPOSITION USED AS ADJEC- 
TIVE MODIFIERS. 

1. We hold these truths to be self-evident: 

(1) That all men are created equal; 

(2) That they are endowed by their Creator with 

certain inalienable rights; 

(3) That among these are life, liberty, and the 

pursuit of happiness; 

(4) That to secure these rights governments are 

instituted among men, deriving their just 
powers from the consent of the governed; 

(5) That whenever any form of government be- 

comes destructive of these ends it is the 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, 
and to institute a new government, laying 
its foundations on such principles, and 
organizing its powers in such form as to 
them shall seem most likely to effect their 
safety and happiness. — Declaration of In- 
dependence. 

2. The text, He leadeth me beside the still waters, was 
well managed by the preacher. 

3. The hope that he would soon reach home, strength- 
ened him daily. « 

4. Who does not love that beautiful song, "Jesus, lover 
of my soul?" 

5. The proclamation, that the day should be a day of 
thanksgiving, and not a day of fasting, was received with 

joy- 

6. The news, that the enemy had been forced to retreat, 
produced great joy in our camp. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 127 

7. A rumor, that the enemy had. entered the city, spread 
consternation in every direction. 

8. My fear is this, that the promised aid will not reach 
me in time. 

Write original sentences containing clauses in appo- 
sition with the following words: 

belief, wish, text, song, rumor, intent, thought, opinion, 
doctrine, conviction, assumption, fear, desire, assertion, 
demand. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

Clause Used as Objective Element. 

rule xv. 

When a substantive clause is used to complete the 
meaning of a verb, it is in the objective case; and, in 
analysis, should be called an objective clause ele- 
ment. 

In the following sentences, it will be seen, readily, that 
the clause elements bear the same relation to the verbs 
that the word elements bear to them. 

Ex. — I know John (objective word element). 

I know that John icill come (objective clause 
element). 

He saw the basket (objective word element). 

He saw how the man made the basket (object- 
ive clause element). 

That is commonly used to connect the objective clause 
to the predicate of the principal proposition; but any sub- 
ordinate connective may be so used. 



12S SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

In the case of direct quotation, there is no connective 
used. 

Ex. — '•'•Come to me" he said. 

The connective that is frequently omitted in indirect 
quotations used as objective elements; but in analyzing it 
should be supplied. 

Ex. — He told me the family had left town. 

The substantive clause is very often used as the object 
of a preposition. 

Ex. — I should have lost my way in the forest, but 

that I overtook a barefoot boy, icho teas 

familiar with the intricate windings of the 

half-hidden pathway. 

I had not thought of how easily it might have 

been saved. 
You have not heard of where I am going. 

In the first of the foregoing sentences, the clause intro- 
duced by that is the object of the preposition but. 

But that I overtook a barefoot boy, etc., is an adverbial 
element equivalent to if I had not, etc. 

When the substantive clause is introduced by an inter- 
rogative word, the sentence is said to contain an inquiry. 

Ex. — I want to know why you hesitate. 
He told me where he was going. 
Mary knew who had taken it. 

A period should be placed at the end of sentences con- 
taining an inquiry. 

Note. — The substantive clause will be treated of 
further under the head of Abridged Propositions. 



complex sentences. 129 

Substantive Clause Used as Objective Element. 
(Continued). 

QUOTATIONS. 

When one uses the language of another for the pur- 
pose of illustration, explanation, criticism, or by way of 
authority, the word, phrase, clause, or sentence so used is 
called a quotation. 

Quotation is said to be direct when the exact 
words of the speaker or writer are used. 

Quotation is said to be indirect when the thought 
or opinion of the writer or speaker is given in the lan- 
guage of the one who has borrowed it. 

A quotation may consist of one word, or of whole 
pages. 

Where a quotation is long, if direct, it is called 
Direct Discourse; if the quotation is indirect, it is 

called Indirect Discourse. 

Quotation marks should be employed to indicate a 
direct quotation, and, if the quotation be long, a capital 
letter should be used also. 

When a quotation is put within another quotation, it 
should be indicated by single marks, and if it ends the sen- 
tence, the single mark should be followed by the double 
mark to show that the quotation is complete. 

Ex. — My father said to me once: "Seneca says, 
'Economy is, in itself, a great revenue,'" 
and I believe it. 

Quotation marks are not used in the Bible, but all the 
quotations begin with capital letters. 
1* 



130 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Ex. — God said, Let there be light, and there was 
light. 

And Jesus answering said unto them, They that are 
whole need not a physician, but they that are sick. 

A writer may quote his own words and use quotation 
marks with the same propriety as when quoting from 
another. The following, though not a clause, is a good 
illustration: 

"Carlo," said I, calling up my dog, into the light, 
"good fellow, Carlo!" — Ik Marvel. 

The principal proposition is usually placed first, when 
the subordinate clause is either direct or indirect quotation. 

Ex. — John said, "I am not prepared to recite." 

John said that he was not prepared to recite. 

It may be placed, however, at the end of a sentence, or 
in the middle of a sentence. 

Ex. — " Tell me where you have been," she said. 

"Let me remain," said he, "until to-morrow." 

The principal propositions, in some sentences contain- 
ing quotations, may be changed to subordinate propositions 
denoting the authority for a statement, without changing 
the meaning of the statement. 

Ex. — He believed, as he told me, that the mines 
would be very valuable. 

Note. — This kind of construction will be treated of 
under the head of adverbial elements. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



131 



Models foe Analyzing Sentences Containing Quota- 
tions Direct and Indirect. 

model I. 

Then Judah came near unto him, and said, my lord, 
let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's 
ears. 

This is a complex sentence; it is composed of one prin- 
cipal proposition and two subordinate propositions. 

It is a mixed sentence; the principal proposition and 
one of the subordinate propositions are declarative; the 
leading subordinate proposition is imperative. 

Then Judah came 



near unto him 
and said 



Judah 

Came and said 



is the principal proposition, 
which is, also, partially com- 
pound, having a compound 
predicate, came and said. 
is the subject; it is unmodi- 
fied. 

is the grammatical predicate. 
Came, the first member of the 
compound predicate, is modi- 
fied by near unto him, an 
adverbial phrase element de- 
noting place. Unto him is 
the basis, modified by near, 
an adverbial word element. 

Both members of the com- 
pound predicate are modified 
by the adverbial element 
then, a word element denoting 
time. 



132 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Said, 



O my lord 



Thou 

(understood) 

Let 



the second member of the complbund 
predicate, is modified by three distinct 
objective elements, each of which is 
independent of the other. 

is the direct object of said, but is 
otherwise independent. Lord is the 
basis; it is nominative independent by- 
address; it is limited by my, an adjec- 
tive word element. is used to indi- 
cate emotion. 

The letter is properly used with 
the nominative by address. 

Said is modified by, Let thy ser- 
vant speak a word in my lord's ears, 
an objective clause element. This 
clause is an imperative sentence, and 
is subordinate only because it is the 
object of said. 

is the subject; it is unmodified. 

is the predicate; it is modified by thy 
servant speak a word in my lord's ears, 
a double objective element. 

Servant is the direct object, modi- 
fied by my, an adjective word element; 
(to) speak a word in my lord's ears is 
the complex attributive object. 

The basis of the complex attribu- 
tive object is the infinitive to speak, 
showing something the direct object is 
to do; it is modified by a word, an 
objective word element; it is modified, 
also, by in my lord's ears, an adverbial 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 133 

phrase element, denoting place; of 
which, in ears is the basis; ears is 
modified by my lord's, a complex pos- 
sessive, used as an adjective element; 
lord's is the basis, modified by my, an 
adjective word element. 

Said is further modified by I pray thee, a 

clause used as a direct objective ele- 
ment. Taken alone, it is a comj^lete 
sentence, and is dependent only be- 
cause it completes the meaning of said. 
It has no grammatical relation to the 
other parts of the sentence, but may 
be considered an element of appeal, 
used for emphasis. 

I is the subject, unmodified. 

JPray is the predicate; it is modified by (to) 

thee, an indirect objective phrase ele- 
ment. 



MODEL II. 

Emerson says that obstinacy is the heroism of Utile minds. 

It is a complex declarative sentence. 

JEmersOfl says is the principal proposition. 

That obstinacy is 
the heroism of 
little minds is the subordinate proposition. 

Emerson is the subject of the principal 

proposition; it is unmodified. 



134 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Says 



Obstinacy 

Is heroism 
Is 



Heroism 



is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by the subordinate 
clause, that obstinacy is the 
heroism of little minds, an 
objective clause element, 
which is joined to the prin- 
cipal proposition by the con- 
junction that. 

is the subject of the subordi- 
nate clause; it is unmodified. 

is the simple predicate. 

is the copula; it is used to 
join the attribute to the sub- 
ject. 

is the substantive attribute; 
it is modified by the, a simple 
adjective word element. 

It is modified, also, by of 
little minds, a complex adjec- 
tive phrase element; of minds 
is the basis; minds is modified 
by little, a simple adjective 
word element. 



EXERCISES UPON THE CLAUSE USED AS OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

1. I know that he will help you. 

2. " Well," said the Man of Books, " Your story is not 
ill told in pleasant verse." — Whittier. 

3. The Traveler said: " If songs have creeds, their 
choice of them let singers make." — Whittier. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 135 

4. He said that he met the man in the depths of the 
forest. 

5. She asked whether the fruit had been brought from 
the orchard. 

6. " Ay, now I comprehend thee, Sancho," said Don 
Quixote. 

7. Thomas Jefferson said: "I know that our legislation, 
under the regal government, had very many vicious points." 

8. I knew that he was in danger of falling. 

9. "You are convened this day," he said, "by his 
Majesty's orders." — Miles Standish. 

10. But the sly Dwarf said: 

" No work is wrought 
By Trolls of the hills, O man, for naught." 

11. He said that he rested an hour by the wayside. 

12. " It is not," he said, " a moral question, but one 
merely of power." 

13. I asked him how far he was going. 

14. He replied that he did not know. 

15. " Do you know how this stone came here, my 
friend?" inquired the benevolent Mr. Pickwick. 

16. "Is the broth ready?" said Robin. 

" No," answered Peggy, " it's not time yet." 

17. He said that he had never given the matter a 
thought. 

exercise. 

Write ten sentences containing objective clause ele- 
ments. 



136 syntax and analysis. 

Adverbial Clauses. 

RULE XVI. 

When a clause is used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, a participle, an adjective, or an adverb, by denoting 
time, 2ilace, cause, manner, or degree, it should be called, in 
analysis, an adverbial clause element. 

The adverbial clauses are introduced by subordinate 
conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, of which there is a 
great variety. 

Adverbial Clauses Denoting Time. 

Adverbial clauses denoting time are joined to principal 

clauses by the following words: 



After 




as long 


as 


until 


as 




before 




when 


as soon as 




ere 




whenever 


as often as 




since 




while 


as frequently 


as 


till 




whilst 



The words after, before, ere, since, till and until are 
classed with the prepositions; but whenever they are used 
to connect a subordinate clause to a principal clause, they 
should be called subordinate conjunctions. 

The first as, in each of the following connectives, as 
soon as, as often as, as long as, etc., is an adverb of degree, 
used to limit the adverbs of time, soon, often, loiig. 

The second as is a subordinate conjunction, used to 
connect the subordinate clause to the principal. 

Ex. — I came as soon, as he called me. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 137 

In the foregoing sentence, as soon belongs to the prin- 
cipal proposition. 

Note. — Some regard the words forming these connec- 
ives as inseparable; but as the separation may be made so 
easily, it is perhaps better to regard them as separable. 

There are three divisions of clauses used to denote time, 
corresponding to the absolute divisions of time, as fol- 
lows: 

1. Time antecedent, i. e., past with regard to the time of 
the action or event. 

Ex. — I heard of it before I saw you. 

2. Time simultaneous, or present with regard to the 
time of the action or event. • 

Ex. — I was there when he came. 

3. Time subsequent, or future to the time of the action 
or event. 

Ex. — I saw him after you left. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 



Damocles was wishing such delights to endure forever, 
when he looked up, by chance, and beheld above his head, 
a sword suspended by a hair. 

It is a complex declarative sentence. 
Damocles teas wishing such delights to endure forever 
is the principal proposition. 

When he looked up, by chance, and beheld above his 
head a sword suspended by a hair, is the subordinate 
proposition. 
6* 



138 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Damocles 
Was wishing 



is the subject of the principal 
proposition; it is unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by such delights to en- 
dure forever' a complex objec- 
tive word element, a double ob- 
ject, delights is the direct object; 
it is modified by such, a simple 
adjective word element; beheld 
is the second member of the 
compound predicate; it is modi- 
fied by a sword suspended by a 
hair; sword is the basis; it is 
modified by a, a simple adjec- 
tive word element, and by sus- 
pended by a hair (abridged 
from which was suspended by a 
hair), a complex adjective word 
element, participial construc- 
tion; suspended is the basis; it 
is modified by, by a hair, a 
complex adverbial phrase ele- 
ment denoting manner; by hair 
is the basis; hair is modified 
by a, a simple adjective word 
element. 

Beheld is modified also, by 
above his head, a complex ad- 
verbial phrase denoting place; 
above head is the basis; head is 
modified by his, a simple adjec- 
tive word element; to endure 
forever is the complex attribu- 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 139 

tive object (the attribute of 
delights)-, to endure is the basis, 
modified by forever, a simple 
adverbial word element, de- 
noting time absolute. 

The element, such delights 
to endure forever, is an abridged 
proposition from the objective 
clause, that such delights might 
endure forever. The principal 
proposition is modified by the 
subordinate adverbial clause 
element denoting time, When 
he looked up, by chance, and 
beheld, above his head, a sword 
suspended by a hair. 

lie is the simple subject, unmodi- 

fied. 

Looked up and 

beheld is the compound predicate. 

Looked up is the first member 
of the compound predicate; it 
is modified by, by chance, a 
simple adverbial word element 
denoting- manner. 



"And J must lie here, like a bedridden monk,' 1 '' ex- 
claimed Ivanhoe, " tohile the game that gives me freedom 
or death is played out by the hand of others.'''' 

It is a complex exclamatory sentence, consisting of four 
propositions: 



140 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



1. Ivanhoe exclaimed. 

2. And I must lie here, like a bedridden monk. 

3. While the game is played out by the hand of others. 

4. That gives me freedom or death. 



Ivanhoe 



Exclaimed 



And I must lie 
here like a bed- 
ridden monk 



Must lie 



is the simple subject of the 
principal proposition; it is un- 
modified. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by the remainder of 
the sentence, a complex objec- 
tive clause element, direct quo- 
tation. 



is the basis of the complex 
objective element. 

is the simple subject; it is un- 
modified. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by here, a simple ad- 
verbial word element denoting 
place. 

is the simple subject ; it is 
modified by like a bedridden 
monk, a complex adjective word 
element; like is modified by a 
bedridden monk, a complex in- 
direct objective element, com- 
pleting the meaning of the 
adjective like; (to is al\va}'s 
understood after like) to monk 
is the basis; ?no>ik is modified 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



.141 



Must lie 



by bedridden, a simple adjective 
word element. 

And is used, not to show 
any grammatical connection, 
but simply to indicate a con- 
nection in thought with some 
thought uttered before. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by here, a simple ad- 
verbial word element, denoting 
place. It is modified, also, by 
the complex adverbial clause 
element, denoting time, while 
the game that gives me freedom 
or death, is played out by the 
hand of others. While is a 
subordinate conjunction used to 
join the subordinate clause to 
the principal clause. It is used 
also, to modify the verb in 
each clause. It always denotes 
duration. 



Game 



is the simple subject of the 
principal proposition ; it is 
modified by the, a simple adjec- 
tive word element; it is modi- 
fied, also, by that gives me free- 
dom or death, an adjective 
clause element. 



TJiat 



is the subject of the adjective 
clause, unmodified. 



142 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Gives is the simple predicate; it is 

modified by me, an indirect ob- 
jective phrase element (to is 
understood before me), and by 

freedom or death, a compound 
direct objective word element. 

The two members of the 
compound objective element, 

freedom and death, are con- 
nected by the coordinate alter- 
native conjunction or. 

Is played OUt is the simple predicate of the 

adverbial clause; it is modified 
by, by the hand of others, a 
complex adverbial phrase ele- 
ment denoting the instrument 
by the use of which something 
is accomplished; by hand is the 
basis; hand is modified by the, 
a simple adjective word ele- 
ment, and by of others, a simple 
adjective phrase element. 

MODEL III. 

Just as she toent down, while her bow was yet recumbent 
in the dark purple horizon, it is said that an angel 
appeared standing between her horns. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of 
three propositions, one principal, and two subordinate. 

Principal proposition: 

That an angel appeared standing between her horns is 
said. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



143 



First subordinate proposition: 

Just as she went down. 

Second subordinate proposition: 

While her bow was yet recumbent in the dark purple 
horizon. 

The principal proposition is introduced by the exple- 
tive it. 

That an angel 

appeared standing 

between her horns is the simple subject; it is a 
clause used as a noun. The 
clause subject is introduced 
by the word that. 

A.ngel is the subject of the clause 

(used as subject of the prin- 
cipal proposition) ; it is modi- 
fied by an, a simple adjective 
word element; it is also modi- 
fied by standing between her 
horns, a complex adjective 
word element, participial con- 
struction; standing is the 
basis; it is modified by be- 
tween her horns, a complex 
adverbial phrase element de- 
noting place; between horns 
is the basis; horns is modified 
by her, a simple adjective 
word element. 

The participle standing 
does not modify the predicate; 
it shows, merely, an accom- 
panying action. 



144 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Appeared 



She 



Went down 



Bow 



Was recumbent 



is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by the compound 
adverbial clause element de- 
noting time, just as she went 
down and while her bow was 
yet . recumbent in the dark 
purple horizon. 

is the simple subject of the 
first member of the compound 
clause element; it is unmodi- 
fied. 

is the simple predicate; went 
down is a compound verb, in- 
separable. As is the con- 
nective, used also to indicate 
a point of time simultaneous. 
The entire clause, As she 
went down, is modified by 
just, a simple adverbial word 
element. 

is the simple subject of the 
second member of the com- 
pound adverbial clause ele- 
ment; it is modified by her, a 
simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

is the simple predicate; was 
is the copula; recumbent is 
the adjective attribute; was 
recumbent is modified by yet, 
a simple adverbial word ele- 
ment denoting time; it is also 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 145 

modified by in the dark 
purple horizon, a complex 
adverbial phrase element de- 
noting place; in horizon is 
the basis; horizon is modified 
by purple, a simple adjective 
word element; purple horizon 
is modified by dark, a simple 
adjective word element. 
{Dark and purple are two 
distinct words; there is, how- 
ever, a compound word, 
dark-purple). While is a 
subordinate connective, used 
to join the clause, which it 
introduces, to the principal 
proposition. It is used, also, 
to modify was recumbent; and 
appeared, by denoting time. 

Is Sdicl is the simple predicate of the 

principal proposition; it is 
unmodified. 



MODEL III. 

Will he return as soon as the work is completed? 

This is a co?nplex interrogative sentence. 
Will he return as soon is the principal proposition; as 
the work is completed is the subordinate proposition 

He is the simple subject of the principal 

proposition; it is unmodified. 
7 K 



146 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Will return is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by as soon as the icork is com- 
pleted, a complex adverbial word 
element denoting time; soon is the 
basis; it is modified by as, a simple 
adverbial word element, and by as 
the toork is completed, an adverbial 
clause element, used with the first 
as to denote comparison of equality 
of time; as is a subordinate con- 
junction used to join the subordinate 
clause to the principal clause. 

Wovh is the simple subject of the subordi- 

nate proposition; it is unmodified. 

Is completed is the principal predicate, unmodi- 
fied. 

MODEL IV. 

Y~ou came earlier than John. 



This is a complex sentence. You came earlier, is the 
principal proposition ; than John (came early) is the sub- 
ordinate proposition. 

You is the subject of the principal proposition; it 
is unmodified. 

Came is the simple predicate; it is modified by, 
earlier than John (came early) a complex 
adverbial word element donating time; earlier 
is the basis, modified by the adverbial clause 
element, than John (came early) used to de- 
note comparison of inequality. 

tfollll is the subject; it is unmodified. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 147 

CatVie is the predicate; it is modified by early, a 
simple adverbial word element. 



model v. 

Whenever he is left alone in the garden, he does noth- 
thing but spoil my flower beds, by running over them to 
chase the butterflies, and to try to catch the humming birds. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

He does nothing but spoil my flower beds by running 
over them to chase etc. 

Whenever he is left alone in the garden is the subordi- 
nate proposition. 

Up, is the subject of the principal proposition; 

it is unmodified. 

Does is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

nothing but spoil my flower-beds, by run- 
ning over them to chase the butterflies, and 
to try to catch the humming birds, a com- 
plex objective word element; nothing is 
the basis; it is modified by but spoil my 
floioer-beds, by running over them to chase 
the butterflies, and to try to catch the hum- 
ming birds, a complex adjective phrase 
element; but (to) spoil is the basis; but is 
a preposition, used instead of except; (to) 
spoil is the object of but/ (to) spoil is 
modified by my flower beds, a complex ob- 
jective word element; beds is the basis, 
modified by flower, a simple adjective word 
element; and also by my, a simple adjective 
word element. (To) spoil is modified also 
by, by running over them to chase the 



148 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

butterflies, and to try to catch the humming 
birds, a complex adverbial phrase element, 
denoting manner; by running is the basis; 
running is modified by over them, a simple 
adverbial phrase element. 

Running is a participial noun, in the 
objective case, governed by the preposition 
by. 

Running is modified, also, by to chase 
the butterflies, and to try to catch the hum- 
ming birds, a compound adverbial phrase 
element; (infinitive of purpose) to chase the 
butterflies is the first member of the com- 
pound adverbial element of purpose; to 
chase is the basis, it is modified by the 
butterflies, a complex objective word ele- 
ment; butterflies is modified by the, a sim- 
ple adjective word element. To try to 
catch the humming birds is the second 
member of the adverbial element of pur- 
pose; to try is the basis, modified by to 
catch the humming birds, a complex direct 
objective phrase element; to catch is the 
basis; it is modified by the humming birds, 
a complex objective word element; hum- 
ming birds is the basis, modified by the, a 
simple adjective word element. 

The principal proposition, (entire) is 
modified by Whenever he is left alone in 
the garden, an adverbial clause element de- 
noting time, 

He is the subject; it is unmodified. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 149 

Is Left is the simple predicate; is, is the copula, 
and left is the verbal attribute. 

Is left is modified by alone, a simple 
adverbial element of manner; it is modi- 
fied also, by in the garden, a complex ad- 
verbial phrase element, denoting- place; in 
garden, is the basis; garden is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word element. 

Whenever is a conjunctive adverb, used 
to join the subordinate clause to the prin- 
cipal; it is used also to modify the predi- 
cates of both propositions, by denoting 
time indefinite. 



EXERCISES ON TQHE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE ELEMENT USED TO 
DENOTE TIME. 

1. "Before I was a king," said he, "I was a farmer." — 
Charles XV, of Sweden. 

2. When the hour of departure came he accompanied 
me to the foot of the stairs. 

3. When the services were over, many of the audience 
seemed inclined to linger in the nave, or wander away 
among the mysterious aisles. — Hawthorne. 

4. While he was speaking, his voice faltered with 
emotion. 

5. As he approached the house, he heard the sounds of 
merriment. 

6. At length the dial instituted a formal inquiry, when 
hands, wheels, weights, with one voice, protested their in- 
nocence. 

7. Leave me, till the twilight comes to soothe my 
achintr heart. 



150 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

8. As you lift your eyes to the vast amphitheatre, you 
meet, in imagination, the eyes of a hundred thousand 
Romans, who have assembled to witness the gladiatorial 
combats. 

9. I must labor until midnight. 

10. Can we still set our hearts on the creatures of God, 
when we find, by sad experience, that the Creator only, is 
permanent? — Bishop Heber. 

11. Harley sat down on a large stone by the way-side to 
take a pebble from his shoe, when he saw, at some distance, 
a beggar approaching him. 

12. And, as he lay and slept under a juniper tree, be- 
hold then an angel touched him. 

13. While he was speaking, his voice faltered. 

14. Come before the moon rises. 

15. 1 shall remain until I hear from nome. 

16. Write to him as often as you can. 

17. You may leave whenever you desire. 

18. Were you at the window as the procession passed 
by? 

19. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy 
youth, while the evil days come not, nor the years draw 
nigh, when thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them. 

20. As we crossed the Sierra Nevada, the snowy moun- 
tains that look down upon the luxuriant Vega of Grenada, 
we overtook a solitary rider, who was singing a wild 
national song, to cheer the loneliness of his journey. — 
Longfellow's Prose. 

21. When the scorner is punished, the simple is made 
wise. 

22. When Don Quixote was leaving Barcelona, he cast 
his eye toward the spot where he was thrown. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 151 

Write twenty sentences illustrating the different kinds 
of clause elements denoting time. 

Select sentences from the Reader to illustrate the lesson. 



Adverbial Clauses Denoting Place. 

Adverbial clauses denoting place are joined to prin- 
cipal clauses by the following connectives: 

where, whither, 

wherever, whithersoever, 

where'er, whence, 

wheresoever, as far as, 

as long as 

farther than 

longer than. 

Where is used to indicate locality. 
Ex. — Let it stay where I placed it. 

Wherever, toheresoever and where'er, indicate locality, 
but in a very indefinite manner. 

Ex. — Wherever you go, I will follow. 

Where'er is used in poetry, rarely in prose. 
Whither indicates direction toward a place. 

Ex. — Whither thou goest, i will go. 

Whence indicates direction from a place. 

Ex. — I know not whence they came. 

Clauses introduced by whither and whence are not nu- 
merous. 

They are commonly used as interrogative adverbs. 



152 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — Whence come those awful sounds? 

Whither dost thou fly, bird of the silvery 



As far as is used to express comparison of equality of 
distance. 

Ex. — We went with him as far as the end of the 
lane. 

In negative comparisons, so should always be used in- 
stead of (is, for the first term of comparison. 

Ex. — He did not go with me so far as the end of the 
lane. 

Farther than expresses inequality of distance. 

Ex. — He went with me farther than the end of the 
lane, (is far.) 



Tired N'ature''s sweet restorer, balmy Sleep/ 
He, like the world, his ready visit pays 
Where fortune smiles. 

This is^a complex declarative sentence. The first line 
consists of a noun, in the nominative case, by pleonasm, 
and its modifiers. 

He, like the world, his ready visit pays, is the principal 
proposition; Where fortune smiles is the subordinate pro- 
position. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 153 

JRestOTer is the nominative case independent by 
pleonasm (the attention is called to the 
• object before any statement is made 
about it); it is modified by sweet, a simple 
adjective word element; sxoeet restorer is 
modified by Tired Nature's, a complex 
adjective element; Nature^s is modified 
by Tired, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

Restorer, is modified, also, by balmy 
Sleep, a complex adjective word element, 
by apposition; Sleep is the basis, modi- 
by balmy, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

He is the simple subject; it is modified by 

like the world, a complex adjective word 
element, like is the basis, modified by 
(to) the world, a complex indirect ob- 
jective phrase element; (to) world is the 
basis; world is modified by the, a simple 
adjective word element. 

JPays is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

his ready visit, a complex objective word 
element; visit is the basis, modified by 
ready; ready visit is modified by the 
simple adjective word element, his. 
fays, is modified, also, by "Where fortune 
smiles, a simple adverbial clause element, 
denoting place; Where is the connective, 
a conjunctive adverb, and, also, modifies 
the verb in each proposition, i. e. pays 
and smiles. 



154 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Wherever you may go, you toill find sorrow and disap- 
pointment. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

You will find sorrow and disappointment, is the prin- 
cipal proposition; wherever you may go, is the subordinate 
proposition. 

You is the subject of the principal propo- 

sition; it is unmodified. 

Will find is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
sorrow and disappointment, a compound 
objective word element, unmodified; the 
two members of the compound objective 
element are connected by the coordinate 
copulative conjunction, and. The predi- 
cate is modified, also, by Wherever you 
may go, an adverbial clause element, de- 
noting place. 

You is the subject of the subordinate clause, 

unmodified. 

Way go is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

wherever, an adverb of place, which has 
a universal signification. Wherever is 
also the connective. 



EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING PLACE. 

1. Put the trees where they are to be planted. 

2. Send it where there is the greatest need. 

3. Do you ever go where the basket-makers live? 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 155 

4. Wherever we are, we are not forgotten by a kind 
Providence. 

5. Where the heart is well guarded, temptations cannot 
enter. 

6. Where the whole is one dark blot of shade, there 
can be no picture. 

7. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 

8. Where'er I roam, whatever realms to see, 
My heart untravell'd fondly turns to thee. 

— Goldsmith. 

9. He buys where he can get the best bargains. 

10. Standing where I was, concealed by the little clump 
of evergreens, I overheard, in spite of myself, the conver- 
sation of the two robbers. 

11. There is society where none intrudes 

By the deep sea, and music in its roar. — Byron. 

12. Where truth and right are concerned, we must not 
hesitate. 

13. Where all were false, I found thee true. 

— Geo. P. Morris. 

14. As far as the eye could reach, the landscape was 
enchanting in its beauty. 

15. The boy stood where he was in danger. 

16. The stag at eve had drunk his fill, 
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill. 

— Lady. op the Lake. 

17. Where there is no vigilance, there is no safety. 

18. Highest of all, where white peaks glanced, 
Where glist'ning streamers waved and danced, 
The wanderer's eye could barely view 

The summer heaven's delicious blue. — SCOTT. 



156 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

19. He not being pleased with the West, will return 
whence he came. 

20. The carrier dove, with willing pinions, flies whither 
she is sent. 

21. I have been where the roses bloom all the year 
round. 



Let the pupil write twenty sentences containing adver- 
bial clauses denoting place. 



Adverbial Clauses Used to Denote a Cause or a 
Reason. 

The principal proposition is often modified by an adver- 
bial clause denoting a cause or a reason. 
They are called causal clauses. 

These clauses are introduced by the conjunctions: 

as, because, for, inasmuch as, since. 

Ex. — He is rich because he has been industrious and 
economical. 
He must be rich for he lives in luxury. 
Since he is so rich, I shall not hesitate to ask 
his aid. 

In the first sentence given above, the adverbial clause 
is used to give the real cause of his being rich. 

In the second sentence, the adverbial clause is used to 
show a reason for making the statement found in the first 
clause, a reason for drawing the inference. 

In the third sentence, the adverbial clause shows a 
reason for not hesitating to ask for aid. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



157 



There is also, another clause, called an illative clause,, 
giving a reason, for the existence of what is stated in the 
principal clause. 

He is rich, therefore he lives in luxury. 



MODEL I. 

I shall return to the city, at the end of the month, be- 
cause my business loill require my close attention, from that 
time until the arrival of my partner. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 
I shall return to the city at the end of the month, is the 
principal proposition. 

Because my business will require my close attention, 
from that time, until the arrival of my partner, is the sub- 
ordinate proposition. 

I is the simple subject; it is unmodi- 

fied. 

Shall return is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by to the city, a complex adver- 
bial phrase element, denoting place; 
to city is the basis; city is modified 
by the; — also by at the end of the 
month, a complex adverbial phrase 
element, denoting time; at end is 
the basis; end is modified by the, a 
simple adjective word element; and 
by of the month, a complex adjective 
phrase element; of month, is the 
basis; month is modified by the sim- 
ple adjective word element the. 



158 



Business 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Shall return is modified, also, by 
because my business icill require my 
close attention, from that time until 
the arrival of my partner, an adver- 
bial causal clause, denoting the real 
cause of his returning. 

is the simple subject of the sub- 
ordinate proposition; it is modified 
by my, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 



Will require is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by my close attention, a complex 
objective word element (direct ob- 
ject); attention is the basis, modified 
by close, a simple adjective word 
element, close attention is modified 
by my, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

Will require is modified, also, by 
from that time until the arrival of 
my partner, a complex adverbial 
phrase element denoting time. The 
basis of this element is a phrase, 
from that time; it is modified by 
until the arrival of my partner. The 
first phrase denotes the beginning of 
the specified time; the second phrase 
denotes the end of the specified 
time. 

The basis of the first phrase is 
from time; time is modified by the 
simple adjective word element that. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



159 



The basis of the second phrase is 
until arrival, arrival is modified by 
'the, a simple adjective word element, 
and by of my partner, a complex ad- 
jective phrase element; of partner 
is the basis, partner is modified by 
the simple adjective word element 
my. 



They are fighting, for I hear the sound of the artillery. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

They are fighting is the principal proposition; for I 
hear the sound of the artillery, is the subordinate proposi- 
tion. 



They 

Are fighting 



Hear 



is the subject of the princij 
sition; it is unmodified. 



propo- 



is the simple predicate; the entire 
expression, They are fighting, is 
modified by, for I hear the sound of 
the artillery, an adverbial causal 
clause, used to denote the reason for 
knowing the fact (it does not give 
the cause, or reason of the fact, that 
they are fighting). 

is the simple subject of the subordi- 
nate clause; it is unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it «is modi- 
fied by the sound of the artillery^ a 
complex objective word element; 
sound is the basis, modified bv the, 



1G0 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



a simple adjective word element, 
and by of the artillery, a complex 
adjective phrase element; artillery 
is modified by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 



EXERCISE UPON CAUSAL CLAUSES USED AS ADVERBIAL 
ELEMENTS. 

1. I will not prolong the journey, for I am weary and 
wayworn, and would fain be at Heidelberg, with my read- 
ers and my hero. — Longfellow's Prose. 

2. I came because your horse would come! — John 
Gilpin. 

3. He did not reach here in time, because the train was 
delayed. 

4. Since you have deceived me in such a manner, I can- 
not trust you again. 

5. People often travel many a weary mile in search of 
happiness, because they do not realize the fact, that it is to 
be found at their own fireside, where they lost it. 

6. The little children, going home from school, did not 
hesitate to run into her little cottage to escape the rain, for 
they knew they were always welcome. 

7. Since you are not fond of reading, it would be the 
greatest folly to spend your money, in buying books. 

8. As the ship will not sail to-day, our friends will ac- 
company us to the concert to-night. 

9. There was no frost last night, for the plants are not 
injured. 

10. He must be sick or absent, for he has not been seen 
in town this week. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 161 

11. Those boys must be very studious, for they always 
recite well. 

12. The Christian religion must be the true religion, 
for it has stood firm in all ages, in spite of the attacks of 
unbelievers. 

13. As the twilight lingers so long, we may continue 
our walk. 

14. I did not go, because you promised to remain until 
to-morrow. 

15. Since you have confessed your fault, I will forgive 
you. 

16. Because the city did not please him, he moved back 
into the country. 

17. You must leave now to take a little rest, for you 
look weary, and careworn. 

18. I know that he did not bring the package, for I 
have been here all day, watching anxiously for it. 

19. I pitied him, because he had lost the confidence of 
his master. 

20. It is not because one man keeps a coach, while his 
neighbor walks afoot, that the one is rich, and the other 
poor. — Wealth of Nations. 

21. It is because one is rich, that he keeps a coach. 

22. It is because one is poor, that he goes afoot. 

Write sentences to illustrate adverbial causal clauses, 
introduced by; 

because, since, as, for 

Select sentences from the Header to illustrate the use of 
the causal clause. 

7* r, 



16^ syntax and analysis. 

Adverbial Clauses Denoting Manner. 

Adverbial clauses denoting manner modify the prin- 
cipal clause by indicating JlOW anything is done; and 
under this head are included: 

1. Correspondence. 

Ex. — He works as he was directed to work. 

2. Consequence. 

He works so hard that he cannot endure it 
long. 

3. Comparison of equality. 

He works as diligently as any of them. 

4. Comparison of inequality. 

He works more diligently than any of them. 

5. Comparison of proportionate equality. 

The harder he works, the more he earns. 

Sometimes two conjunctions are used together in a sen- 
tence, but they have no relation to each other. In such 
cases, a clause is always omitted by ellipsis. 

Ex. — Be as courteous to one in humble circum- 
stances, as if you were sure that he would 
be at no distant day, a man of power and 
influence. 

Expanded form. — 

Be as courteous to one in humble circum- 
stances as you would be courteous, if you 
were sure that he would be, at no distant 
day, a man of power and influence. 

As though is often incorrectly used for as if. 
Clauses introduced by as or than always limit the ad- 
jective or the adverb to which they are joined. 



C0MP1EX SENTENCES. 163 

The word as which precedes the adjective or the adverb, 
is itself an adverb of degree used to modify the word to 
which it is joined. — See Adverbial Clause denoting time. 

Comparison of positive equality is always indicated 

by as — as. 

Ex. — John is as tall as James [is tall]. 

In comparisons of negative equality, however, SO, not 
as, must be used for the Jirst term of the comparison. 

Ex. — John is not so tall as James. 

Clauses denoting comparison of inequality are intro- 
duced by than. 

Ex. — He can run faster than you. 

The subordinate clause connected by than is used to 
modify the adjective or the adverb to which it is joined. 

There is usually an ellipsis after than, and the noun or 
pronoun which follows it, must be in the nominative 
case. 

Ex. — No man in the senate is more eloquent than 
he [is eloquent]. 

Sometimes both subject and predicate verb are omitted 
after than, leaving only the object. 

Ex. — I will call Mary sooner than him. 

Such expressions as the foregoing, are not considered 
elegant, though by supplying the subject and predicate the 
construction will be seen at once: 

I will call Mary sooner than I will call him. 
Proportionate equality is indicated by the— the. 
Ex. — The faster I ran the greater grew my fear. 



164 .SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Adverbial clauses should be separated from principal 
clauses by a comma, except those introduced by as and 
than; clauses connected to the principal proposition by 
these conjunctions should never be separated by any mark 
from the principal proposition. 

Models of Sentences Containing the Different 
Kinds of Adverbial Elements Denoting Manner. 

model I. 
He gave me the medicine, just as you directed. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

He gave me the medicine is the principal proposition; 
just as you directed, is the subordinate proposition. 

He is the simple subject of the princi- 

pal proposition; it is unmodified. 

Gave is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by the medicine, a complex ob- 
jective word element (direct ob- 
ject), and by (to) me, an objective 
phrase element (indirect object) ; 
and, also, by just as you directed, an 
adverbial clause • element denoting 
manner. 

Yow is the subject of the subordinate 

clause; it is unmodified. 

Directed is the predicate; it is unmodified. 

As is a subordinate conjunction used 
to join the subordinate clause to the 
principal clause. The entire subor- 
dinate clause is modified by just, a 
simple adverbial word element. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



165 



MODEL II. 



He is not so studious as people suppose. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 
He is not so studious, is the principal proposition; as 
people suppose, is the subordinate proposition. 

He is the subject of the principal prop- 

osition, unmodified. 

Is Studious is the simple predicate; is, is the co- 
pula, and studious is the adjective 
attribute. Studious is modified by 
so, an adverbial word element of de- 
gree; and by as people suppose {that 
he is studious), an adverbial clause 
element denoting comparison. 

People is the simple subject, unmodified. 

Sup-pose is the simple predicate, it is modified 

by the objective clause, understood 
(that he is studious). 



MODEL III. 

Then the clouds again changed their color, gradually 
becoming brighter as if new life had been infused into them. 
— Land op the Midnight Sun. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

Then the clouds again changed their color, gradually 
becoming brighter, is the principal proposition; as if new 
life had been infused into them, is the subordinate proposi- 
tion. 



166 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Clouds is the simple subject of the 

principal proposition; it is 
modified by the, a simple ad- 
jective word element, and by 
gradually becoming brighter 
as if new life had been in- 
fused into them, a complex 
adjective word element, par- 
ticipial construction. 

Becoming brighter is the 
basis; becoming is the parti- 
ciple of the copulative verb 
become, followed by brighter, 
a predicate adjective absolute 
with the participle. 

Becoming brighter is modi- 
fied by gradually, a simple 
adverbial word element of 
manner (the idea of time is 
conveyed, also, by gradually) ; 
it is modified, also, by as if 
new life had been infused into 
them, a complex adverbial 
clause element denoting man- 
ner. 

After as an entire propo- 
sition is omitted by ellipsis; — 
as they would become brighter, 
if new life had been infused 
into them. 

The elliptical clause intro- 
duced by as, is modified by 
if new life had been iixf 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



167 



Life 



Had been infused 



Changed 



into them, a simple adverbial 
clause element denoting con- 
dition. 

is the simple subject; it is 
modified by new, a simple ad- 
jective word element. If is a 
subordinate conjunction. 

is the simple predicate, it is 
modified by into them, a sim- 
ple adverbial phrase element 
of place. 

is the simple predicate of the 
principal proposition; it is 
modified by their color, a com- 
plex objective word element, 
color is the basis, modified by 
their, a simple adjective word 
element; changed is modified, 
also, by again, a simple ad- 
verbial element of time. 

The participle and its 
modifiers, besides belonging 
to the subject, show an ac- 
companying condition, some- 
what affecting the predicate. 



16* 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Models of Sentences Containing Clauses Denoting 
Comparison of Equality, Comparison of Inequal- 
ity, of Proportionate Equality of Correspond- 
ence, of Consequence and Result. 



model i. 

The pleasure of seeking it, is as great as the pleasure of 
finding it. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The pleasure of seeking it is as great, is the principal 
proposition; as the pleasure of finding it {is great), is the 
subordinate clause. 

JPleciSlli'e is the simple subject of the principal 
proposition; it is modified by the, a sim- 
ple adjective word element; and by of 
seeking it, a complex adjective phrase 
element; of seeking is the basis, — seek- 
ing is modified by it, a simple objective 
word element. 

Is Grreat is the simple predicate; is is the copula, 
and great is the adjective attribute. The 
attribute, great is modified by as, an ad- 
verbial word element of degree, and by 
as the jileasure of finding it (is great), an 
adverbial clause element, denoting com- 
parison of equality. 

Pleasure is the simple subject of the subordinate 
proposition, modified by the, a simple ad- 
jective word element; and by of finding 
it, a complex adjective phrase element; 
of finding is the basis; finding is modi- 
fied by the simple objective word ele- 
ment it. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 169 



As letters some hand hath invisibly traced, 
When held to the flame will steal out on the sight, 
So, many a feeling that long seemed effaced 
The warmth of a meeting like this brings to light. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, containing five 
propositions, one principal proposition, and four sub- 
ordinate propositions. 

SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS. 

1. The warmth of a meeting like this brings to light, 
So, many a feeling — principal proposition, 

2. That long seemed effaced, 

3. As letters will steal out on the sight, 

4. ( Which) some hand hath invisibly traced, 

5. When held to the flame, subordinate propositions. 

Warmth is the simple subject of the 

principal proposition; it is 
modified by the, a simple 
adjective word element, and 
by of a meeting like this, a 
complex adjective phrase 
element; of meeting is the 
basis; meeting, is modified 
by a, a simple adjective 
word element, and by like 
t/tis, a complex adjectiva 
word element; like is the 
basis; it is modified by (to) 
t/tis, a simple objective 
phrase element. 



170 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Brings 



That 



is the simple predicate; it 
is modified by many a feel- 
ing that long seemed effaced, 
a complex objective word 
element; feeling is the 
basis; it is modified by 
many a, a simple adjective 
word element; and by that 
long seemed effaced; an ad- 
jective clause element. 

is the simple subject of the 
adjective clause; it is un- 
modified. 



Seemed effaced 



is the simple predicate; 
seemed is a copulative verb, 
used to join the verbal 
attribute (to be) effaced, to 
the subject; seemed effaced, 
is modified by long, an ad- 
verbial word element, de- 
noting time. 

Urings is also modified 
by to light, an adverbial 
phrase element. 

The entire expression is 
limited by As letters some 
hand hath invisibly traced, 
When held to the flame, 
will steal oat on the sight, 
a complex adverbial ele- 
ment, denoting manner 
(correspondence). 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



171 



Letters 



Hand 



Hath traced 



Will steal out 



They (understood) 



is the simple subject of the 
clause denoting manner; it 
is modified by that (under- 
stood) some hand hath in- 
visibly traced, an adjective 
clause element. 

is the subject of the adjec- 
tive clause; it is modified 
by some, a simple adjective 
word element. 

is the simple predicate; it 
is modified by invisibly, a 
simple adverbial word ele- 
ment, and by that, a simple 
objective word element. 
That is also the connective 
of the adjective clause. 

is the simple predicate of 
the principal proposition; 
it is modified by on the 
sight, an adverbial phrase 
element. As is a connec- 
tive, used only to join the 
subordinate clause to the 
principal. The predicate 
is modified, also, by When 
held to the flame, an ad- 
verbial clause element, de. 
noting time. 

is the simple subject; it is 
unmodified. 



172 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Awe (understood) held is the simple predicate; it 
is modified by When, an 
adverbial word element, de- 
noting time; when is used, 
also, to connect the subor- 
dinate clause, denoting time, 
to the subordinate clause de- 
noting manner. Are held is, 
also, modified by to the flame, 
an adverbial phrase element, 
denoting place; to flame is 
the basis; flame is modified 
by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 



MODEL III. 

lie was so anxious to return to America that he would 
not wait an hour longer, though his health was improving 
rapidly. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

He vms so anxious to return to America is the principal 
proposition, That he would not 'wait an hour longer, though 
his health was improving rapidly, is the complex sub- 
ordinate clause. 

He is the subject of the principal 

proposition, unmodified. 

Was anxious is the simple predicate; was is 

the copula, and anxious is the 
adjective attribute, modified 
by so, an adverbial word 
element of degree; and by to 
return to America, a complex 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



17a 



Would remain 



objective phrase element (in 
direct object); to return is the 
basis, it is modified by to Amer- 
ica, an adverbial phrase ele- 
ment, denoting place. The at- 
tribute, anxious, is modified, 
also, by that he would not re- 
main an hour longer, though 
his health toas improving rap- 
idly, a complex adverbial clause 
element, denoting consequence. 

is the subject, unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is- 
modified by an hour longer, a 
complex adverbial word ele- 
ment, denoting time; longer is 
the basis, modified by (by) an 
hour, an adverbial phrase ele- 
ment, denoting measurement of 
time; the clause is modified by 
not, a modal adverb. The en- 
tire clause is modified by though 
his health toas improving rap- 
idly, an adversative concessive 
clause. That is a subordinate 
conjunction, used, only as a 
connective. 



Health 



is the simple subject of the con- 
cessive clause; it is modified by 
his, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 



174 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Was improving is the simple predicate; was is 
the copula, and improving is the 
verbal attribute. The predicate 
is modified by rapidly, an ad- 
verbial word element, denoting 
manner. 

Though is a subordinate con- 
junction, used to join the con- 
cessive clause to the denoting 
consequence. 



He gave me such a look that I loas convinced of his sin- 
cerity. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

He gave me such a look, is the principal proposition ; 
that I was convinced of his sincerity, is the subordinate 
proposition. 

He is the subject of the principal 

proposition, unmodified. 

Gave is the simple predicate; it is mod- 

ified by such a look, a complex 
objective word element; look is 
the basis, modified by such a an 
adjective word element, insepara- 
ble; and by me, an indirect objec- 
tive element. 

The principal proposition is 
modified by that I was convinced 
of his sincerity, an adverbial clause 
element denoting consequence or 
effect. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 175 

is the subject, unmodified. 



Was convinced 



is the simple predicate; it is mod- 
ified by of his sincerity, a complex 
objective phrase element (indirect 
object); of sincerity is the basis; 
sincerity is modified by his, a 
simple adjective word element. 



model v. 
The moon is more beautiful them the sun. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The moon is more beautiful, is the principal proposition ; 
than the sun (is beautiful) is the subordinate proposition. 

JMoon is the simple subject of the principal 

proposition; it is modified by the, 
a simple adjective word element. 

Is beautiful is the simple predicate, is, is the cop- 
ula, and beautiful is the adjective 
attribute. Beautiful is modified by 
more, an adverbial element of de- 
gree, used to form the comparative 
of beautiful. 

More beautiful is modified by 
than the sun (is beautiful) an adver- 
bial clause denoting comparison of 
inequality. 

Sim is the simple subject of the subor- 

dinate proposition; it is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word element. 

Is beautiful is the predicate; Is, is the copula, 
and beautiful is the adjective attrib- 
ute. The predicate is unmodified. 



176 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



MODEL IV. 

The farther I read, the greater my wonder grew. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 
The greater my wonder grew, is the principal proposi- 
tion; and the farther 1 read, is the subordinate proposition. 



Wonder 



Grew greater 



I 
Read 



is the simple subject of the prin- 
cipal proposition; it is modified 
by my, a simple adjective word 
element. 

is the simple predicate; grew is a 
copulative verb, used to connect 
the adjective attribute to the sub- 
ject. To be is understood after 
grew. The adjective attribute, 
greater, is modified by the, a 
simple adverbial word element. 

The principal proposition is 
modified by the farther I read, 
an adverbial clause element, de- 
noting-comparison of proportionate 
equality. 

is the subject of the subordinate 
proposition; it is unmodified, 
is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by the farther, a complex 
adverbial word element, denoting- 
distance; it seems, also, to convey 
the idea of amount. 

Farther is the basis; it is mod- 
ified by the a simple adverbial 
word element. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 177 



EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING MANNER. 

1. He ploughed the fields just as his father ploughed 
them forty years before. 

2. Teach me to labor and to wait as you have done. 

3. I can do it just as the carpenter did it. 

4. O Time and Change! — with hair as gray 
As was my sire's that winter dav, 

How strange it seems, with so much gone 
Of life and love, to still live on! — Whittier. 

5. I have not seen, in all my wanderings, an apple so 
good as the golden pippin that grew on the tree by the 
garden gate. 

6. In the depths of the forest are found many wild- 
flowers which are as beautiful as the flowers in the imperial 
gardens. 

7. Your friend has not been so fortunate as you have 
been. 

8. The snow is falling as I have not seen it fall since I 
left New England. 

9. You may manage the affairs of the household during 
my absence, just as you would manage your own. 

10. Suddenly, as if arrested, by a feeling of fear or of 

wonder. 
Still she stood with her colorless lips apart, while a 

shudder 
Ran through her frame, and forgotten, the flowerets 

dropped from her fingers, 
And from her eyes and cheeks, the light and the 

bloom of the morning. — Evaxuki.ink. 

11. This stream ilows much more rapidly than the stream 
(that) we crossed this morning. 

M 



178 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

12. Better is a dry morsel and quietness therewith than 
a house full of sacrifices with strife. — Proverbs. 

13. It is eighteen degrees colder than it was last night. 

14. The colder it grows, the better I feel. 

15. The faster I ran, the greater grew my fear. 

10. The farther I traveled, the rougher the road became. 

17. Are they not more to me than all things else ? 

18. The longer the nights are, the shorter the time seems. 



Write sentences to illustrate the use of as, just as, than, 
the — the. 

Let the pupil add clauses denoting consequence or 
effect, to the following: 

1 had so little food. 

He is so tall. 

They are so poor. 

It is so warm. 

The night is so beautiful. 

They gave him such a name. 

The night is so stormy. 

She gave me such a. 



Adverbial Conditional Clauses. 

An adverbial clause is often used to limit the entire 
principal clause by denoting something necessary to the 
existence of something else. 

Ex. — The solar system could not keep within its ad- 
mirable limits for a moment if it loere not 
controlled by an Almighty hand. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 179 

In this sentence, the solar system, keeping within limits, 
is dependent upon a certain condition,, i. e. that of its being 
controlled by an Almighty power. 

Such clauses are called conditional clauses. 

They are introduced by if, though, Unless, ex- 
cept, provided, provided that, and lest. 

The verb in the conditional clause is in the subjunctive 
mode, though it may have the indicative or the potential 
form. 



MODEL I. 

If thou loouldst visit fair Melrose aright, 
Go visit it by the pale moonlight. 

This is a complex imperative sentence. 

Go visit it by the pale moonlight, is the principal propo- 
sition. 

If thou wouldst visit fair Melrose aright, is the sub- 
ordinate proposition. 

TllOU understood, is the simple subject 

of the principal proposition; it is 
unmodified. 

GrO is the simple predicate; it is mod- 

ified by (to) visit it by the pale 
moonlight, an adverbial element of 
purpose; the basis is the infinitive 
visit (to is understood), modi lied 
by it, a simple objective word ele- 
ment; visit is modified, also, by, 
by the pale moonlight, a com- 



180 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Thou 



Wouldst visit 



plex adverbial phrase element, 
denoting manner, by moonlight is 
the basis; moonlight is modified 
by pale, a simple adjective word 
element; pale moonlight is modi- 
fied by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 

The entire principal proposi- 
tion is modified by If thou loouldst 
visit fair Melrose aright, an ad- 
verbial conditional clause. 

is the simple subject of the subor- 
dinate clause, unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is mod- 
ified by fair Melrose, a complex 
objective word element; Melrose 
is the basis, modified by fair, a 
simple adjective word element. 
Visit is modified, also, by aright, 
a simple adverbial word element. 
If is a subordinate conjunction 
used to connect the subordinate 
clause to the principal. 



MODEL II. 



Had I known that you were thinking about leaving, I 
shoxdd have advised you to remain. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

I shoitld have advised you to remain; is the principal 
proposition. 

Had I known that you were thinking about leaving, is 
the subordinate proposition. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



181 



Should have 
advised 



Had known 



You 



Were thinking 



is the simple subject of the prin- 
cipal proposition; it is unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by you to remain, a double 
object; you is the direct object, 
and to remain is the attributive 
object. The entire principal pro- 
position is modified by Had I 
known that you were thinking 
about leaving, a complex sub- 
ordinate adverbial clause denoting 
condition, it is equivalent to If I 
had known, etc. 

is the simple subject of the con- 
ditional clause; it is unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by that you were thinking 
about leaving, an objective clause 
element. 

is the subject of the objective 
clause, unmodified. 

is the predicate; were is the 
copula, and thinking is the verbal 
attribute. Were thinking is molli- 
fied by about leaving, a simple ob- 
jective phrase element (indirect 
object). 



18-2 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



MODEL III. 



It will be impossible to reach the place, unless you 
travel on horseback. 

This is a complex, declarative sentence. 

It loill be impossible to reach the place, is the principal 
proposition. 

Unless you travel on horseback, is the subordinate prop- 
osition. 

The sentence is introduced by the expletive it, which 
forms no material part of the sentence. 



To reach the place 



Will be impossible 



You 



is the simple subject; it is 
an infinitive absolute with 
its modifiers. As subject, 
it has no modifiers. 

is the simple predicate; 
the whole expression is 
modified by the subordinate 
adverbial clause, unless you 
travel on horseback, de- 
noting condition. 

The basis of the subject 
is to reach; it is modified 
by the place, a direct ob- 
jective word element, place 
is the basis; it is modified 
by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 

is the simple subject of the 
subordinate clause; it is 
unmodified. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 183 

Travel is the simple predicate; it 

is modified by on horse- 
back, a simple adverbial 
phrase element. 

EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 

1. I have no time to spare, for T have much to do. 

2. If there were a possibility of having- even our free- 
schools kept a little out of town, it would certainly conduce 
to the health and vigor of, perhaps, the mind as well as the 
body.— Goldsmith. 

3. Had I read as much as others, I might have been as 
ignorant. 

4. If you want to be miserable, think about yourself. 

5. Were I to leave him now, I should always regret it, 
for he needs my attention constantly. 

6. Weep not that the world changes, 

7. Did it keep 

A stable, changeless state, 't were cause indeed to 
weep. 

8. Religion would not have enemies, if it were not an 
enemy to their vices. 

9. Had he listened to the advice of his parents, he 
would not have been in such distress to-day. 

10. If I forgot thee O Jerusalem, let my right hand for- 
get her cunning. — Psalm cxxxvii. 

11. If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the 
uttermost parts of the sea, even there shall thy hand lead 
me. — Psalm cxxxix. 

12. The church will be built, provided that enough 
money be raised. 



184 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

13. Should the river rise, the large steam-boats would 
soon be running. 

14. He will certainly leave, unless you urge him to- 
remain until he grows stronger. 

Write sentences to illustrate the use of the conditional 
clause, using the following connectives: 

If, unless, lest, except, provided that. 

Write clauses to limit the following propositions: 

John will go to New York. 

You may ride. 

I cannot remain here. 

William can go. 

Your plants will wither. 

Stand still. 

He shall not go. 

Write principal propositions, and join to them the fol- 
lowing: 

Were I in your position. 

Had he written one day sooner. 

If the moon shine to-night. 

Unless you pay in advance. 

Provided that the ship sail to-morrow. 



Adverbial Clauses Denoting Motive or Purpose. 

Adverbial clauses denoting motive or purpose are not 
numerous. 

They are sometimes called final clauses, and are intro- 
duced by that, in order that, and Jest. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 185 

Not is frequently used in such clause, in connection 
with that, but should not be called a connective, though it 
is so regarded by some authors. 

Ex. — I went that I might avoid the severity of the 
winter. 
1 went that I might not suffer from the severity 
of the winter. 

The clause denoting purpose is equivalent to an infin- 
itive of purpose. 

Ex. — I went to avoid the severity of the winter. 

The clause denoting purpose should be separated from 
the principal clause by a comma only. 



Model of a Sentence Containing an Adverbial 
Clause Denoting Motive. 

Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may 
be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee. 

This is a complex imperative sentence. Honor thy 
father and thy mother, is the principal proposition; that 
thy days may be long upon the land lohich the Lord thy 
God giveth thee is the complex subordinate clause. 

TJlOU is the simple subject of the principal prop- 

osition; it is unmodified. 

Honor is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
thy father and thy mother, a compound ob- 
jective word element; the two members of 
which are joined by the coordinate copula- 
tive conjunction and. The principal propo- 
sition is modified by that thy Jay* may be 
8* 



186 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

long upon the land lohich the Lord thy 
God giveth thee, a complex adverbial clause 
element, denoting motive; that thy days 
may be long upon the land is the basis, 
land is modified by which the Lord thy 
God giveth thee, an adjective clause ele- 
ment. 

Days is the simple subject of the first sub- 

ordinate clause; it is modified by thy, a 
simple adjective word element. 

Way be is the simple predicate; may is the auxil- 
iary verb; be is used to denote existence; 
it is, also, modified by upon the land 
which the Lord thy God giveth thee, an ad- 
verbial phrase element denoting place; 
upyon land is the basis; land is modified by 
the a simple adjective word element, and 
by which the Lord thy God giveth thee, an 
adjective clause element. The entire pred- 
icate is modified by long, an adverbial word 
element of duration of time, equivalent to 
for a long lime. 

Lord is the simple subject of the adjective 

clause; it is modified by thy God, a com- 
plex adjective element by apposition. 

CrivetJl is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
(to) thee, a simple objective phrase ele- 
ment, indirect object, and by which, a 
simple objective word element, direct 
object. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 187 

EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING PURPOSE 
OR MOTIVE. 

1. The boy, after laboring hard all day would spend 
half the night in study, that he might prepare himself to 
enter college. 

2. Be careful, lest what you say be carried abroad " by 
a bird of the air." 

3. Take it to a chemist, that he may make an analysis 
of it. 

4. Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee. 

5. He sat by the window, that he might breathe the pure 
fresh air, and enjoy the beautiful view of the picturesque 
scenery round about his home. 

6. My father gave me a few acres of land, that I might 
try the experiment of scientific farming. 

7. I brought it, that you might, yourself examine it to 
see if it is what you want. 

8. Do not sell your house, lest you regret it. 

9. Obey the voice of conscience, lest thy indifference 
cause thee sorrow. 

10. Be ready, that you may be able to secure a good 
seat. 

11. Read the instructions contained in the letter, that 
you may know how to proceed. 

12. The door of the little church in this strange moun- 
tain village, was open when I first saw it, and I entered, 
that I might be benefited by the atmosphere of devotion 
which always pervades a house of worship. 

13. In order that I might reach home in time, I traveled 
alone, all nio-ht through a dense forest. 



188 syntax and analysis. 

Concessive Adverbial Clauses. 

A concessive subordinate clause is used to modify the 
principal clause by denoting something conceded, yielded, 
or admitted. 

Ex. — Though I meet opposition at every step, I will 
continue to make the investigation. 

The connectives of concessive clauses are: 

Although, however, notwithstanding, though. 

The correlatives, used with these connectives for empha- 
sis, are nevertheless, still, yet. 

These correlatives are always placed in the principal 
proposition. 

Clauses denoting comparison of equality sometimes ex- 
press concession. 

Ex. — Weary as I am, I must continue to work. 

Concessive clauses are often introduced by the com- 
pound relatives, whatever, whichever, whoever. 

Ex. — Whoever may have told you, it is not true. 



Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

This is a complex, declarative sentence. 
Yet w ill I trust in him, is the principal proposition; 
though he slay me, is the subordinate proposition. 

I is the subject of the principal proposi- 

tion, it is unmodified. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 189 

Will trust is the simple predicate; it is modified 
by in him, an adverbial phrase element 
of place (this element refers to place 
in a figurative sense). 

The entire proposition is modified 
by Though he slay me, an adverbial 
clause element denoting concession. 

He is the subject of the subordinate 

clause; it is not modified. 

Slay is the simple predicate, it is modified 

by me, a simple objective word ele- 
ment. 

Slay is used instead of slays, to 
put it into the subjunctive form of the 
verb. 

Though is a subordinate conjunc- 
tion, used, only to connect the sub- 
ordinate clause to the principal. 



However content he might seem, his heart was filled with a 
longing for his mountain home. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 
His heart teas filled with a longing for his mountain 
home is the principal proposition. 

However content he might see~n is the subordinate. 

Heart is the simple subject of the principal 

proposition; it is modified by the 
simple adjective word element his. 



190 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Was filled is the predicate; it is modified by 
with a longing for his mountain home, 
a complex adverbial element denoting 
manner; with longing is the basis, 
longing (participial noun) is modified 
by for his mountain home, a complex 
adjective phrase element; for home is 
the basis; home is modified by moun- 
tain, a simple adjective word element; 
mountain home is modified by his, a 
simple adjective word element. 

The entire clause is modified by 
However content he might seem, an ad- 
verbial clause denoting concession. 

He is the simple subject, unmodified. 

Might seem 

eOfltetlt is the simple predicate, seem is a cop- 
ulative verb, used to connect the ad- 
jective attribute content to the subject; 
content, 'the attribute, is modified by 
however, a simple adverbial word ele- 
ment. 

However is a conjunctive adverb, 
it is used, also, to join the subordinate 
clause to the principal. 



EXERCISES UPON ADVERBIAL CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 

1. However extravagant he may seem, he really lives 
within his means. 

2. I would not do it, though it would relieve me at once 
of all embarrassment. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 191 

3. Happy as I have been here, I am willing to seek a 
new home in the west. 

4. Whatever farce the boastful hero plays 
Virtue alone, has majesty in death. — Young. 

5. Poor as he seemed to be, while he lived, he left a 
large fortune to his heirs. 

6. Although I gave him permission to go, I shall not 
cease to regret it, for I now know that it is impossible for 
good to result from it. 

7. I would not bear such insults a day longer, though it 
were the means of savino- me from a life-time of toil. 



Sentences Containing Abridged Propositions, 
rule XVII. 

When a sentence contains an abridged proposition, it 
should be called, in analysis, a simple sentence, unless it 
contains a subordinate proposition, also. 

PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 

A.bridf/e means to shorten, to contract. 

With regard to syntax, it does not always refer to the 
use of fewer words in a sentence; though that is frequently 
the case. 

Abridgment affects the subordinate clause only, chang- 
ing the construction, but making no material change in the 
meaning. 

The abridged proposition adds greatly to the beauty 
and elegance of language. 

The connective that is particularly troublesome, as it 
occurs so frequently in conversation. 



192 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

It is easy to avoid using it, when one understands 
abridgment. 

Ex. — He wants that I should excuse him. 

I want that you should do me a favor. 

These sentences are inelegant; the abridged form is 
much to be preferred, as: 

He wants me to excuse him. 
I want you to do me a favor. 

Propositions are abridged in various ways, when the 
participial construction is used. In the following the full 
proposition will be given first : 

1. As my home is in the country, I have little oppor- 

tunity to attend the lectures. 
My home being in the country, I have little oppor- 
tunity to attend the lectures. 
In this sentence, the proposition is abridged by dropping 
the connective as, and changing the verb is to the parti- 
ciple being; the subject home is retained. 

2. Your brother did not know that you were here. 
Your brother did not know of your being here. 

In this example, the connective of the objective clause 
that is dropped; the subject you is chauged to the posses- 
sive your; and the verb were is changed to the participle 
being. 

3. I did not think that it was he. 
I did not think of its being he. 

This sentence is like the other, except in one respect; 
in the first sentence the word he is a substantive attribute, 
in the (predicate) nominative case; and, in the abridged 
form, it is retained, as predicate nominative absolute with 
the participle being. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 193 

4. A little boy, who was named Henry, who was running- 

very rapidly across the field, fell, and hurt him- 
self badly. 

A little boy, named Henry, running rapidly across 
the field, fell, and hurt himself badly. 

This sentence contains two subordinate propositions; 
the first is abridged by dropping the connective and sub- 
ject who, and the copula was, and retaining the passive 
participle, named, and the predicate nominative Henri/. 

The second proposition is abridged by dropping the 
subject who, which is, also, the connective and the copula 
was, retaining only the participle 7'iotning, and its modi- 
fiers. 

5. I considered that he was a good boy. 
I considered him as being a good boy. 

In this construction, the abridgment is from the objec- 
tive clause, that he loas a good boy. It is abridged by 
dropping the connective that, changing the subject lie to 
the objective him, and the copula was, to the participle, 
being, preceded by as, a conjunction, used to connect the 
expression being a good bog, to the objective him; bog is 
in the predicate objective connected to the direct object 
(of which it is an attribute) by the participle of the copula 
being. 

Many participles are used in absolute constructions, as: 

Taking it all in all 
Speaking the truth 
Confessing the truth 
Properly speaking 



194 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — Taking it all in all, we ought to be satisfied. 
Speaking the truth, I know he is in fault. 
Confessing the truth, I am the offender. 
Properly speaking, there is no such thing as a 

live verb. 



There is another form of abridgment, spoken of under 
the Phrase Element, which retains only the adverbial 
jDhrase of the clause. 

Ex. — The sunflowers in the garden. — The sunflowers 
which are in the garden. 

The abridged proposition, in any of its forms, always 
has the name and office of the full proposition. 

In the following: 

The sunflowers which are in the garden, etc., the sub- 
ordinate clause, -which are in the garden, is an adjective 
clause element, used to limit su/ifloivers; and in the 
abridged form, in the garden is used as an adjective 
phrase element, limiting sunflowers, 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

MODEL I. 

On my right, a swelling mountain ridge, covered with 
verdure, and sprinkled with little white hermitages, looked 
forth towards the rising sun. 

It is a simple sentence, containing two abridged prop- 
ositions, covered with verdure, and, sprinkled with little 
wldte Jiermitages. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 195 

The first abridged proposition is changed from the sub- 
ordinate clause which was covered with verdure, to the par- 
ticipial construction, by dropping the subject, which, and 
the copula was; retaining the participle and its modifiers, 
only. 

The second abridged proposition is changed in the same 
manner. 

Mountain ridge is the simple subject; it is mod- 
ified by swelling, an adjective 
word element, and, also, by the 
compound adjective word ele- 
ment, participial construction, 

Covered with verdure and 
sprinkled with little white her- 
mitages. 

Covered is the basis of the 
first member of the compound 
adjective element; it is modified 
by with verdure, an adverbial 
phrase element, denoting man- 
ner; it is unmodified. 

iSprinkled with little white 
hermitages is the second member 
of the compound adjective ele- 
ment; /Sprinkled is the basis, 
modified by with little tohite her- 
mitages, an adverbial phrase ele- 
ment, denoting manner; with 
hermitages, is the basis; her- 
mitages is modified by white, 
a simple adjective word ele- 
ment; white hermitages is mod- 
ified by little, a simple adjective 
word element. 



196 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Looked forth is the simple predicate. {Looked 

and forth combined, form a com- 
pound verb — inseparable.) 

Looked forth is modified by 
on my right, a complex adver- 
bial phrase element denoting 
place; on right is the basis; 
right is modified by my, a simple 
adjective word element; it is 
also modified by toward the 
rising sun, a complex adverbial 
phrase element, denoting direc- 
tion: toward sun is the basis; 
sun is modified by the simple 
adjective element rising (a par- 
ticipial adjective); the complex 
idea rising siai is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 



MODEL II. 

The moon, coming out from under a cloud, threw her 
silvery beams all over the landscape, which soon appeared 
like a scene of enchantment in fairy land. 

It is a complex declarative sentence 

The moon coming out from under a cloud threw her 
silvery beams all over the landscape, is the principal propo- 
sition. 

Which soon apjyeared like a score of enchantment in 
fairy land, is the subordinate proposition. 



COMPLEX SEXTEXCES. 



197 



Moon 



Threw 



is the simple subject of the prin- 
cipal proposition; it is modified 
by the, a simple adjective word 
element; it is modified, also, by 
coming out from under a cloud, 
a complex adjective word element, 
participial construction; it is an 
abridged proposition, from who 
(moon is personified) came out 
from under a cloud. Coming out, 
is the basis; it is modified by 
from under a cloud, a complex ad- 
verbial phrase element, denoting- 
place; from under cloud, is the 
basis; cloud is modified by the 
simple adjective word element a. 
From under is a complex propo- 
sition. 

is the simple predicate, it is modi- 
fied by her silvery beams, a com- 
plex objective word element; 
beams is the basis; it is modified 
by silvery, a simple adjective word 
element; silvery beams, is modi- 
fied by her, a simple adjective 
word element. The predicate, 
threw, is modified, also, by all 
over the landscape, which soon ap- 
peared like a scene of enchant- 
ment in fairy land; over land- 
scape is the basis; Ja,i<Is<;i/„ is 
modified by the, a simple adjective 
word element; also by the adjec- 
tive clause element, which <ij>- 
peared like, etc. 



198 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Which 



Appeared Wee 



is the simple subject; it is un- 
modified. 

is the simple predicate. Appeared 
is a copulative verb, used to join 
the adjective attribute like to the 
subject which; it is modified by 
soon, an adverbial word element; 
like, the adjective attribute, is 
modified by the complex indirect 
objective phrase element (to) a 
scene of enchantment in fairy 
land; (to) scene is the basis; it is 
modified by of enchantment, a 
simple adjective phrase element; 
scene is, also, modified by in fairy 
land, a complex adjective phrase 
element (equivalent to which be- 
longs to fair 1/ land); in laud is 
the basis; land is modified by 
fairy, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

All is an adverbial element, 
equivalent to entirely; it modifies 
over the landscape, which soon ap- 
peared, etc. 



MODEL III. 

Having witnessed the magnificent sunset, from the top 
of the mountain, we descended, very sloioly, watching the 
clouds, whose brilliant tints were indescribable. 

It is a complex declarative sentence, containing an 
abridged proposition. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



199 



Having witnessed the magnificent sunset from the top 
of the mountain, we descended very slowly, watching the 
clouds, is the principal proposition; whose brilliant tints 
were indescribable, is the subordinate proposition. 



We 



Tints 



Were itideserihahle 



Descended 



is the simple subject of the 
principal proposition; it is 
modified by watching the 
clouds, etc., a complex ad- 
jective word element; the 
participle, watching, is the 
basis; it is modified by the 
clouds whose brilliant tints 
were indescribable, a com- 
plex objective word ele- 
ment; clouds is the basis, 
modified by the, a simple 
adjective word element; it 
is modified, also, by the 
adjective clause element, 
Whose brilliant tints fere 
indescribable. 

is the simple subject ot the 
subordinate clause; it is 
modified by brilliant, a, 
simple adjective word ele- 
ment; whose, a simple ad- 
jective word element, modi- 
lies brilliant tints. 
is the simple predicate, 
unmodified. 

is the simple predicate of 
the principal proposition; 
it is modified by w< ryslowh/, 



200 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



a complex adverbial word 
element of manner; slowly 
is the basis, it is modified 
by very a simple adverbial 
word element, denoting de- 
gree. Descended is modi- 
fied, also, b} r the abridged 
proposition, having wit- 
nessed the magnificent sun- 
set from the top of the 
mountain, which is abridged 
from the adverbial clause 
denoting time — After we 
had witnessed the magnifi- 
cent sunset from the top of 
the mountain. The basis 
of the abridged proposition 
is Having witnessed, it is 
modified by the magnifi- 
cent sunset, a complex ob- 
jective word element; xu//- 
set is the basis, modified by 
magnificent, a simple ad- 
jective word element; mag- 
nificent sunset is modified 
by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 

Saving witnessed is 
modified, also, by, from the 
top of the mountain, a com- 
plex adverbial phrase ele- 
ment denoting place; from 
top, is the basis; top is" 
modified by the, a simple 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 201 

adjective word element, and 
by of the mountain, a com- 
plex adjective phrase ele- 
ment. 

The participle, Saving 
witnessed, really refers to, 
and modifies toe, under- 
stood; toe having witnessed, 
etc., but the entire ex- 
pression modifies the-pred- 
icate, by denoting time. 

The participle watching, 
although it belongs to, and 
modifies the noun, is used 
to denote an action, accom- 
panying the action indi- 
cated by the predicate verb 
descended. 

Let the pupil make sentences containing abridged 
propositions; using the following participles: 



going, 


gone, 


having gone 


doing, 


done, 


having done 


loving, 


loved, 


having loved 


(being) loved, 


loved, 


having been loved 


seeing, 


seen, 


having seen 


feeling, 


felt, 


having felt 



Ex. — A little boy going to school was bitten by a 
fierce dog, belonging to a stranger. 
John, loved by his mother, always obeyed her 
cheerfully. 

The past active participle cannot be used 
to abridge a proposition. 



202 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Exercises Upon Sentences Containing Abridged 
Propositions. 

participial constructions. 

1. Erelong he came to a river, moving in solemn ma- 
jesty through the forest. 

2. I am a pilgrim, benighted on my way. 

3. My friend having left, I determined to remain no 
longer in such solitude. 

4. Through my window comes the delightful fragrance 
of the honeysuckle and the jessamine, reminding me of a 
sunny clime, where the air is all the time laden with sweet- 
ness. 

5. Hearing a cry of pain, I hastened to the door, where 
I found a little child, who had lost its way. 

6. The words uttered by him, in jest, proved to be 
prophetic. 

7. Men resting, and waiting for luck to help them, 
usually wait in vain. 

8. I read the other day, some verses written by an emi- 
nent painter, which were original and not conventional. 

9. Through the long night she sat watching and waiting 
for his return. 

10. Fearing that I might offend him, I was exceedingly 
careful, in my conduct, and in my conversation. 

11. Sharing in the modern contempt for a superficial 
learning, he has not wasted his time over dead languages, 
which he could not hope thoroughly to master. 

12. Twilight coming on, the two men emerged from 
their hiding-place. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 203 

13. The lone tree standing in the middle of the prairie, 
has sheltered many a weary traveler. 

14. Having reached the end of our journey, we enjoyed 
a delightful season of rest. 

15. Coming down from the mountain, we had a fine 
view of the magnificent landscape below. 

16. The little girl came into the room weeping. 

17. She went away laughing. 

18. The poor boy, impoverished by the mismanage- 
ment of a faithless guardian, is growing up in ignorance. 

19. The boy gathering nuts in the woods, is the son of 
a farmer who lives in the large house on the bill. 

20. I want the inkstand on your table. 

21. That beautiful tall tree in the yard was planted by 
my father, thirty years ago. 

22. I was delighted to hear of your being in town 
again. 

23. I often thought of him as being my friend. 

24. As there were no windows in this dreary abode, 
the only light which cheered the darkness within came 
flickering from the fire upon the hearth, and the smoky 
sunbeams that peeped down the long-necked chimney. 

25. I looked out and beheld a procession of villagers 
advancing along the road, attired in gay dresses, and 
marching merrily on, in the direction of the church. 

2f>. We saw oranges ripening on the trees. 

27. The winds sighing among the trees, warned us of 
the approach of winter. 

28. Vesper looked forth 

From out her western hermitage, and smiled; 
And up the east unclouded rode the .Moon 
With all her stars, gazing on earth intense, 
As if she saw some wonder walking there. 



204 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

Infinitive Constructions. 

Infinitive forms are frequently used in the abridgment 
of subordinate propositions, and, particularly, in objective 
clause elements. 

Ex. — He wishes that he could be free. 
He wishes to be free. 

As the subject in the principal proposition, and that in 
the subordinate are the same in this sentence, the subject 
is dropped. 

But, in the following, it is changed to the objective, 
and, with the infinitive, forms a double object. 

Ex. — Mary wanted that he should assist her. 
Mary wanted him to assist her. 

The pronoun him is the direct object and to assist her, 
the attributive object, or predicate objective. 
In such a sentence as the following: 
I ordered him to leave. 

Most authors call him the subject of the infinitive; but, 
if the subject of a proposition is that about which something 
is said, the word him cannot be a subject, for nothing is 
affirmed of it; and if the predicate is that which is ajfifiiu d 
of the subject, to leave cannot be the predicate for the in- 
finitive cannot affirm. 

The abridged propositions is frequently introduced by 
the preposition for. 



ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 205 

Ex. — That he should act in such a way surprises me. 
For him to act in such a way surprises me. 

In the abridged form above, the preposition for is fol- 
lowed by the double object, him to act, etc. 

Clauses denoting purpose are often abridged by the 
infinitive construction. 

Ex. — He went to New York that he might get em- 
ployment. 
He went to New York to get employment. 

In the following: I told him that the comet was visible^ 
him is the indirect object, that the comet was visible, is the 
direct object. 

The infinitive has but two tenses, the present, and 
the present perfect, and great care is necessary in 
order to avoid using the wrong one. 

The present infinitive should be used when the action 
indicated by it, is simultaneous with the action as- 
serted by the principal verb; as: 

I wanted to go with you to Europe, last year. 

I want to go with you to Europe this year. 

I know I shall want to go with you to Europe next 

year. 

After the following verbs the present infinitive should 
always be used; they will not take after them the perfect 
infinitive. 



expect 


intend 


1 ry 


hope 


command 


endeavor 


desire 


entreat 


attempt 


wish 


want 
fail 


etc. 



206 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The perfect infinitive should not be used often, 
and only when the time indicated by the infinitive is past 
with regard to the time of the action asserted by the prin- 
cipal verb, as: 

He is said to have succeeded well in his profession 
last year. 
He ought to have succeeded well last year. 

The present infinitive may be used, also, with the verbs 
in the sentences above. 

MODEL I. 

I thought him to be honest. 

This is a simple declarative sentence containing an 
abridged proposition. The expanded form is, J thought 
that he was honest. 

In abridging the clause the connective that is dropped, 
the subject he is changed to the objective, and the copula 
was is changed to the infinitive to be, which is used as cop- 
ula to connect the adjective attribute to the objective him. 

I is the subject, unmodified. 

TJlOUffJlt is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
the double objective element, him to be 
honest/ him is the direct object, and 
honest is the attributive, connected to 
him, by to be. 

MODEL II. 

They went to see the new building. 

This is a simple sentence, containing an abridged prop- 
osition. 



ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 207 

The expanded form is They went that they might see the 
new building. The subordinate proposition is abridged by 
dropping the connective that, and the subject they, and by 
changing the finite verb see to the infinitive of purpose, 
to see. 

They is the subject, unmodified. 

Went is the simple predicate; it is modified by to 
see the neio building, a complex adverbial 
phrase element, denoting purpose; to see is 
the basis; it is modified by the new building, 
a complex adverbial word element; building 
is the basis; it is modified by neio, a simple 
adjective word element; neio building is mod- 
ified by the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

MODEL III. 

I have sold the house, for you to have enough money to 
defray your expenses in Europe. 

This is a simple sentence, containing an abridged prop- 
osition. The expanded form is I have sold the house in 
order that you might have enough money to defray your 
expenses in Europe. In abridging the proposition, the 
connective, in order that is dropped, the subject is retained, 
the predicate verb might have is changed to the infinitive 
to have, and the whole follows the preposition for. 

I is the subject, unmodified. 

Save sold is the simple predicate; it is modified 
by the house, a complex objective 
word element; house is the basis, mod- 
ified by the, a simple adjective word 
element. Have sold the house is mod- 
ified by for you to have enough money 
to defray your expenses in Europe, & 



3U5 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

complex adverbial phrase element de- 
noting purpose. For is used to gov- 
ern, not you alone, but all that fol- 
lows; You to have, etc., is a double 
objective element; you is the direct 
object, and to have, etc., is the attrib- 
utive object. 

To have is modified by enough 
money to defray your expenses in 
Europe, a complex objective word ele- 
ment; money is the basis; it is modi- 
fied by enough, a simple adjective 
word element, and by to defray your 
expenses in Europe, a complex adjec- 
tive phrase element; to defray is the 
basis; it is modified by your expenses, 
a complex objective word element; 
expenses is the basis, modified by your, 
a simple adjective word element. 

To defray your expenses is modi- 
fied by in Europe, a simple adverbial 
word element. 

EXERCISES UPON ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

1. He begged to have the privilege of remaining a 
month longer. 

2. She taught her children to obey the laws of the land. 

3. The man hoped to be able to redeem his property, 
before the time should expire. 

4. I would travel a thousand miles to see it once more. 

5. You will be too late for the train, if you stay to hear 
the lecture to-night. 

G. He did not want to remain, for he knew there would 
be trouble among the members of the society. 
7. Let me rest now ! 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 209 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

RULE XVII. 

When a sentence is composed of independent proposi- 
tions, connected by and, or, nor, it should he called, in 
analysis, a compound sentence. 

A Compound Sentence consists of at least two 
independent propositions. 

Ex. — By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down; 
yea, toe wept when we remembered Zion. 

—Psalm cxxxvii. 

These propositions have no modifying power. 

They (the propositions) should not be called clauses; 
for a clause is an integral part of a sentence, while these 
may, each, if taken alone, make a full sentence. 

The independent propositions of a compound sentence 
should be called, in analysis, members, not clauses. 

The members of Compound Sentences are united by 
Coordinate Copulative Conjunctions, either expressed or 
understood. 

These conj unctions do not modify, yet they always sug- 
gest the nature of the member of the sentence in which 
they are found. 

1. Cojmlative Conjunctions suggest harmony, as: and. 

2. Adversative Conjunctions suggest opposition or con- 
trast, as: but. 

3. Alternative Conjunctions suggest the leaving out of 
something, as: or, nor. 

4. Causal. — A cause or reason, as: f>r, therefore. 

9* 



210 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — 1. They sent a box of clothing to the mission- 
aries, and it reached them just before 
they sailed. 

2. They sent a box of clothing to the mission- 

aries, but they had sailed before it reached 
the city. 

3. They did not send it in time, or the mission- 

aries would have received it; for the ex- 
press had arrived before they left. 

4. The missionaries have not the box of cloth- 

ing on board; therefore they must have 
sailed before the arrival of the express. 

Great care should be taken to avoid the use of a 
copulative conjunction, in joining an adversative member 
of a compound sentence, to the first number. It will be 
seen readily that the word and should not be used in the 
second of the foregoing sentences, for the two members do 
not harmonize in thought. 

They show contrast, therefore but is the appropriate 
conjunction to be used. 

Coordination, is made emphatic by using associate con- 
nections and correlatives. 

The associate connective must be in the member of 
the sentence in which the principal conjunction is found, 
but the correlative must be in the other members. 

Ex. — The late frosts injured the crops; and the 
heavy rains, also, are doing much damage. 

Not only have the crops been injured by the late 
frosts, but great damage has been done by the constant and 
heavy rains. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 211 

The adverbs, only, merely, simply and even, are some- 
times used with but; and in such sentences, the second 
member of the compound sentence is copulative, not ad- 
versative. 

The word but, when so used, is equivalent to and the. 

And is the principal copulative conjunction; it is used 
(either expressed or understood) in almost all cases of 
copulative coordination. 

Note. — The coordinate conjunctions are often used to 
introduce a sentence; they do not, however, indicate any 
grammatical relation, but a relation of thought. 

When the word therefore is used as an associate of 
and, it shows that the second member is an inference, a 
consequence, or a conclusion drawn from the first. 

In such sentences and is often omitted. 

Inference, 

Ex. — 1. A dark cloud is rising, therefore we may 
ex,pect rain. 

Conclusion, 

2. The engines cannot reach here in time, 

therefore the building must burn to the 
ground. 

Consequence, 

3. The large building was not carefully con- 

structed, therefore it could not stand the 
force of the storm. 

Moreover is used to add to, and to increase the fore< 
of an argument; also, to give additional proof or reason. 

Ex. — I did not receive your letter in time; more- 
over I was not iiblr t<> travel. 



212 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

And, when used alone, denotes simple coordination; 
when repeated, however, in a series of coordinate proposi- 
tions, it gives emphasis. 

As well as, when used as a copulative conjunction, is 
inseparable. It makes the coordination stronger than and 
makes it, but when it joins two nouns in the singular, it 
requires a singular verb. 

As well as is commonly used to connect words and 
phrases, seldom, clauses. 

Ex. — Mary as well as her sister is attending school 
in New York. 

Note. — Emphatic coordination will be fully explained 
hereafter. The members of a compound sentence are sep- 
arated by a comma, if the union is very close; otherwise 
the semicolon or colon is used. 



Models for Analyzing Sentences Having Coor- 
dinate Copulative Constructions. 

model i. 
I labor and I too it. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, composed of 
two independent propositions. 

J labor is the first member of the compound sentence; 
and, J wait is the second member. 

I is the subject of the first member of the sen- 

tence; it is unmodified. 

Ldhor is the predicate, unmodified. 

I is the subject of the second member, unmodi- 

fied. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 213 

Wait is the predicate, unmodified. And is a co- 
ordinate copulative conjunction, used to join 
the two independent propositions, which 
harmonize with each other. 



MODEL II. 

The day is done, and the darkness 
Falls from the wings of Night. 

This is a compound declarative sentence. 
The day is done is the first member; and the darkness 
Falls from the wings of Night is the second member. 

Day is the simple subject of the first mem- 

ber of the sentence; it is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word element. 

Is d,OTie is the predicate; it is unmodified. 

Darkness is the simple subject of the second 
member; it is modified by the a sim- 
ple adjective word element. 

Falls is the simple predicate; it is modified 

by From the wings of Night, a com- 
plex adverbial phrase element of place. 
From wings is the basis; wings is 
modified by the, a simple adjective 
word element, and by of NigJit, a sim- 
ple adjective phrase element. And is 
a coordinate copulative conjunction, 
used to join the two members. 



214 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



MODEL III. 

We had not been long in the camp, when a party set 
out in quest of a bee-tree, and, being curious to witness the 
sport, I gladly accepted an invitation to accompany them. 
— Irving. 

This is a compound declarative sentence; the first mem- 
ber of which is complex; and the second member contains 
an abridged proposition. 

We had not been long in the camp^ when a party set 
out in quest of a bee-tree, in the first member of the com- 
pound sentence, and being curious to witness the sport, I 
gladly accepted an invitation to accompany them, is the 
second member. 

TVe is the subject of the first member, un- 

modified. 

Had been is the simple predicate. Had is the 
auxiliary verb; been is the past par- 
ticiple of the verb be; it is used to de- 
note existence. Had been is modified 
by in the camp, a complex adverbial 
phrase element of place; in camp is 
the basis; camp is modified by the, a 
simple adjective word element. Had 
been in the camp is modified by long, 
a simple adverbial word element of 
time — duration; had been long in the 
cam}) is modified by not, a modal ad- 
verb; and, also, by when a party set 
out in quest of a bee-tree, an adverbial 
clause element, denoting a point of 
time simultaneous. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



215 



Party 



Set out 



Accepted 



is the simple subject of the subord- 
inate clause; it is modified by a, a 
simple adjective word element. 

is the simple predicate; it is modified 
by in quest of a bee-tree, a complex 
adverbial element, denoting purpose; 
in quest of bee-tree is the basis; (in 
quest of is inseparable); bee-tree is 
modified by a, a simple adjective word 
element. 

is the simple subject of the second 
member of the compound sentence; it 
is modified by being curious to witness 
the sport, a complex adjective word 
element, participial construction (an 
abridged proposition). Being is the 
participle of the copula; curious is the 
predicate adjective retained after the 
participle. Curious is modified by 
to witness the sport, a complex indirect 
objective element. This is used to 
complete the meaning of the adjective 
alone, it has no grammatical relation 
to being. To witness is the basis, mod- 
ified by the complex objective word 
element, the sport. Sport is modified 
by the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

is the simple predicate; it is modified 
bv an invitation to accompany them, a 
complex objective word element ; invi- 
tation is the basis, modified by a», a 



216 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

simple adjective word element, and by 
to accompany them, a complex adjec- 
tive infinitive phrase element; to ac- 
company is modified by them, an ob- 
jective word element, direct. Accepted 
is modified, also, by gladly, a simple 
adverbial word element of manner. 
And is a coordinate copulative con- 
junction used to join the two members 
of the sentence. 



MODEL IV. 

God said, Let there be light; and there was light. 

This is a compound mixed sentence, consisting of three 
propositions, two independent, and one dependent. 

The first member of the compound sentence, God said, 
Let there he light, is complex; God said is the principal 
proposition of the first member of the compound sentence, 
it is declarative; Let there be light, is the subordinate 
proposition; it is imperative, and is, really, the leading- and 
important fact of the sentence; taken alone, it is an inde- 
pendent proposition; as the object of said, it is to be re- 
garded as a dependent proposition. 

The second member of the compound sentence, ami 
there was light, is simple and declarative. 

God is the subject of the principal proposition, in 

the first member of the compound sentence; 
it is unmodified. 

Said is the simple predicate; it is modified by Let 
there be light, a complex objective clause ele- 
ment 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 217 

Let is the predicate; it is the imperative absolute, 

that is, the verb is used without reference to 
any subject whatever. If thou or ye be sup- 
plied, as subject, neither of them would refer 
to an antecedent. 

Let is modified by light (to) be, a double 
objective element; light is the direct ob- 
ject, and (to) be, used to denote existence, is 
the attributive object. There is an expletive, 
used for the sake of euphony. 

Tjigllt is the subject of the second member of the 
compound sentence; it is unmodified. 

Was is the predicate, unmodified; it is used to 
state the existence of light/ there is an ex- 
pletive. 

And "is a coordinate copulative conjunc- 
tion, used to unite the two members of the 
compound sentence. 



I heard the trailing garments of the night 
/Sweep through her marble halls.' 

I saw her sable skirts all fringed with light 
From the celestial toalls! — Longfellow. 

This is a compound exclamatory sentence, composed of 
two independent propositions. 

The first member is, I heard tin' trailing garment* of 
the night sweep through her marble halls. 

The second member is, I saw her sable ski/-/* all fringed 
with light. 



218 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

I is the subject of the first member; it is un- 

modified. 

Heard is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
the trailing garments of the night sweep 
through her marble halls, a complex ob- 
jective word element, a double object; 
garments is the direct object; sweep through 
her marble halls is the attributive object. 
Garments is the basis, modified by trailing, 
a simple adjective word element, a partici- 
pial adjective; trailing garments is modi- 
fied by the adjective word element the, and 
by of the night, a complex adjective phrase 
element; of night is the basis; night is 
modified by the, a simple adjective word 
element. 

The basis of the attributive object, is 
to sweep; it is modified by through her 
marble halls, a complex adverbial phrase 
element, denoting place; through halls is 
the basis; halls is modified by marble, a 
simple adjective word element; marble 
halls is modified by her, a simple adjective 
word element. 

I is t-he subject of. the second member of the 

compound sentence; it is unmodified. 

Saw is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

her sable skirts all fringed with light, 
From the celestial walls, a complex objec- 
tive word element, a direct object; skirts 
is the basis, modified by sable, a simple ad- 
jective word element; sable skirts is modi- 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 219 

fied by her, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. Skirts is modified by all fringed 
with light From the celestial walls, a com- 
plex adjective word element, participial 
construction ;. fringed is the basis, modified 
by all, a simple adverbial word element of 
degree, equivalent to entirely,' and by with 
light From the celestial walls, a complex 
adverbial phrase element of manner; with 
light is the basis, light is modified by From 
the celestial toalls, a complex adjective 
phrase element; from vmlls is the basis; 
toalls is modified by celestial, a simple ad- 
jective word element; celestial walls is 
modified by the, a simple adjective word 
element. 



Exercise upon Compound Sentences. 
coordinate copulative constructions. 

1. I have often thought upon death; and I find it the 
least of all evils. 

2. Under the fierce winds, the pines bend their heads; 
and the mountain snow is swept away, forming immense 
heights, and hiding everything from sight. 

3. At this moment the gates opened, and a peasant 
woman came out. 

4. The sun was delightful; and the branches made that 
gentle May rustling, which seems to come from nests, even 
more than from the wind. 

5. All stood prepared, and through the long, long 
night, 
Expectant pined for morn's returning ray. — Tasso. 



220 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

6. Life is real; life is earnest! 

7. He looketh upon the earth, and it trembleth; He 
toucheth the hills, and they smoke. 

8. The moon is glorious to-night, and the stars have 
hidden their faces behind her silvery veil. 

9. And ere the early bed-time came 

The white drift piled the window frame; 
And, through the glass, the clothes-lines posts 
Looked in like tall and sheeted ghosts. 

10. We had read 

Of rare Aladdin's wondrous cave, 
And to our own, his name we gave. 

11. The hunter marked the mountain high, 
The lone lake's western boundary, 
And deemed the stag must turn to bay, 
Where that huge rampart barred the way. 

12. Song soothes our pains; 
And age has pains to soothe. 

13. For a few moments, the glow of sunset mingles with 
that of sunrise, and one cannot tell which prevails. — Land 
of the Midnight Sun. 

14. He staid not for brake, and he stopped not for stone, 
He swam the Eske River, where ford there was none. 

15. The Ocean eagle soared 

From his nest by the white wave's foam, 
And the rocking pines of the forest roared : 
This was their welcome home. 

16. Ah ! distinctly I remember, it was in the black 

December, 
And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost 
upon the floor. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 221 

17. All cannot be great; and nobody may reasonably 
expect all the world to be engaged in lauding his merits. 

18. They heard, and were abashed, and up they sprung 
Upon the wing. — Milton. 

19. Creditors have better memories than debtors; and 
debtors are a superstitious set — great observers of set 
days and times. 

20. Genius has glue on its hands, and will take hold of 
a marble slab. 

Adversative Coordinate Clauses. 

The second member of a compound sentence often 
contains a thought which is in entire contrast with that in 
the first member. 

These expressions are called adversative. 

They are joined to the first member of the sentence by 
the adversative conjunction but. 

The word but does not modify, though it always sug- 
gests something opposed in some way to, the first state- 
ment. 

The opposition may be, simply, two contrasted state- 
ments. 

Ex. — I did not remain long in France; but spent 
several months in Italy. 

The second member may contain a statement opposed 
to the inference that would naturally be drawn from the 
statement made in the first member. 

A feeling of deep sorrow was shown for a little time, 
but it soon, passed away. 

Adversative coordination is made emphatic by means of 
the associate connectives: 

Yet, still, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, now, 
then, and some others. 



222 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



I went to the country to remain, only a few days; but I 
found life there so full of delight that I did not return to 
the city for a month. 

This is a compound sentence. It is composed of two 
members. 

I went to the country to remain only a few days is the 
first member. 

I is the subject, it is unmodified. 

TVettt is the predicate; it is modified by to the 

country, a complex adverbial phrase ele- 
ment; to country is the basis; country is 
modified by the, an adjective word ele- 
ment. 

It is also modified by to remain only 
a few days, an infinitive of purpose used 
as an adverbial element. 

To remain is the basis; it is modified 
by only a few days, an adverbial phrase 
element denoting time; of which [./br] 
a few days is the basis; it is modified by 
only. The basis of the phrase is for 
days; days is limited by a few. 

The second member of the compound sentence is: 

But I found life there so full of delight that I did not 
return to the city for a month. 

It is joined to the first member by the coordinate adver- 
sative conjunction but, which is used to indicate a thought 
or result entirely opposed to what is found in the first 
member. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



223 



It is complex; it contains a principal and a dependent 
proposition. 

I found life there so full of delight is the principal 
proposition. 

I is the subject; it is unmodified. 

Found is the simple predicate. It is modi- 

fied by the double object, life so full 
of delight that I did not return to 
the city for a month. 

Life is the direct object; [to be~] so fidl 

of delight, etc., is the attributive ob- 
ject. Full is the basis, it is an ad- 
jective used as predicate objectivi- 
tive, belonging to life; it is modified 
by so, an adverb of degree, and by 
of delight, an indirect objective ele- 
ment. 

Full is also modified by the sub- 
ordinate clause, that I did not re- 
turn to the city for a month, an ad- 
verbial clause element denoting con- 
sequence. That is a subordinate 
conjunction, used to join the sub- 
ordinate clause to the word full in 
the principal clause. 

I is the subject; it is unmodified. 

Did return is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by for a month, an adverbial 
phrase element, denoting time. The 
expression is modified by the modal 
adverb not, an adverbial word ele- 
ment denoting negation. 



224 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Still stands the forest primeval, bxt under the shade 

of its branches 
Dwells another race, with other customs and language. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two members. 

Still stands the forest primeval, is the tirst member; 
and, but under the shade of its branches, Dwells another 
race, is the second member. 

Forest is the simple subject of the first member of 
the compound sentence; it is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word element, and 
by primeval, also, a simple adjective word 
element. 

Stdflds is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
still, a simple adverbial word element, de- 
noting- time. 

Race is the simple subject of the second mem- 

ber; it is modified by another, a simple ad- 
jective word element, and by with other 
customs and language, a compound adjec- 
tive phrase element; with customs is the 
basis of the first member of the compound 
adjective element; customs is modified by 
other, a simple adjective word element; 
(with) language is the second member, 
language is modified by other, understood. 

Dwells is the predicate; it is modified by under the 
shade of its branches, a complex adverbial 
phrase element of place; under shade is the 
basis, shade is modified by of its branches, 
a complex adjective phrase element; 
branches is the basis, modified by its, a sim- 
ple adjective word element. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. &&0 

But is a coordinate adversative connec- 
tive, used to join the second member, 
which is used to show a contrast, between 
the condition of the forest (which is the 
same now as then) and the condition of the 
village which is different. 

Exercises upon Compound Sentences, 
coordinate adversative constructions. 

1. The moon has not risen yet; but the stars are very- 
bright. 

2. I cannot go; but I will send all that is necessary for 
their comfort. 

3. The important invention is said to have been made 
in the thirteenth century; but it was not in common use 
until the fourteenth, or even the beginning of the fifteenth 
century. 

4. The truest help we can render to an afflicted man, is 
not to take his burden from him, but to call out his best 
strength, that he may be able to bear the burden. 

5. Pleasure may fill up the interstices of life, but it is 
poor material to build its frame-work out of. 

6. He went, but did not remain long. 

7. We promise according to our hopes; but perform 
according to our fears. 

8. As usual in all congregations, some fell asleep; but 
in my pew a sleeper was aroused by a pinch of snufF. 

9. There was no servility of manner; but all were 
courteous. 

10. T would make 

Reason my guide, but she should sometimes sit 
Patiently by the wayside, while I traced 
The mazes of the pleasant wilderness 
Around me. — Hi:v w P, 

P 



226 syntax and analysis. 

Alternative Coordinations. 

Coordination is alternative when the members of a 
compound sentence are considered separately; only one of 
them containing a statement of a fact; but it is impossible 
to know from the construction, which contains it. 

Ex. — I will buy your part of the land, or J will sell 
you mine. 

Sometimes it is necessary to give a negative significa- 
tion to alternative coordination. 

Ex. — I will not sell my part of the land, nor will I 
buy yours. 

Alternative coordination is made emphatic by using 
with the principal conjunctions, associate connectives or 
correlatives; sometimes by both. 

Ex. — Twill either buy your part of the land, or else 
sell you mine. 

The Alternative Conjunctions are: 

Principal — or, nor 
Associates — else , other w ise 
Correlatives— either, neither, whether. 

Either and whether are correlatives of or. 

Ex. — I shall go either to-morrow or the day after. 

I do not know whether I shall go to-morrow or 
not. 

Neither is a correlative of nor. 

Ex. — I shall go neither to-morrow nor the day after. 

Great care should be taken to avoid the use of neither, 
when or is the principal conjunction. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 227 

The member of the compound sentence introduced by 
an alternative conjunction is frequently elliptical. 

Ex. — I shall go neither to-morrow nor (shall I go) 

the dag after. 

Else is sometimes used alone, in the second member of 
a compound sentence, but or is always understood. 

. Ex. — Turn away from the path of the wicked; else 
it 'will lead you to destruction. 

When whether is used as a correlative of or, the nega- 
tive following or, should be not. JSfo is often incorrectly 
used in such sentences. 

Ex. — Whether I shall go or not is uncertain. 

Otherwise is not often used in conversation, but it is 
found often in argumentative or didactic discourses. 

Ex. — Your arguments must have the semblance of 
truth; otherwise they will not convince. 



Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or Flattery soothe ihe dull, cold ear of death? 

This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of 
two members. 

Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, is the first 
member; Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? 
is the second member. 

Voice is the simple subject of the first 

member of the sentence; it is modi- 
fied by Honor's, a simple adjective 
word element. 



228 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Can provoke is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by the silent dust, a complex ob- 
jective word element, modified by 
silent, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment; silent dust is modified by the, 
a simple adjective word element. 

Flattery is the subject of the second member; 

it is unmodified. 

(Can) Soothe is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by the dull, cold ear of death, 
a complex objective word element; 
ear is the basis, it is modified by 
cold, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment, and by dull, a simple adjec- 
tive word element. Each of the ele- 
ments, dull and cold, depends di- 
rectly upon the word ear. Ear is 
modified, also, by of death, a simple 
adjective phrase element. 

Or is a co5rdinate alternative 
conjunction, used to join the two 
members of the compound sentence. 



EXERCISES UPON COORDINATE ALTERNATIVE CLAUSES. 

1. Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Pleiades, 
or loose the bands of Orion?— Bible. 

2. My lips shall not speak wickedness, nor my tongue 
utter deceit. 

3. You must learn the value of time, or you will not 
succeed in any undertaking. 

4. Obey your teacher, or suffer the consequences. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 229 

5. My tongue shall praise Thee continually, or be silent 
forevermore. 

6. None of them can, by any means, redeem his 
brother, nor give to God a ransom for him. — Bible. 

7. He is not a debtor to any man, nor does he intend 
to be. 

8. Is it a foolish dream, an idle and vague superstition, 
Or has an angel passed and revealed the truth to my 

spirit? —Evangeline. 



Causal Coordination. 

The second member of a compound sentence sometimes 
expresses a reason for the statement made in the first 
member. 

In such sentences, for is generally used as the con- 
nective. 

Ex. — Praise ye the Lord; for it is good to sing 
praises unto our God. 

For is frequently used at the beginning of a sentence; 
but it shows no grammatical relation to the preceding sen- 
tence; the relation is in thought only. Many such con- 
structions are found in the Bible. 

Ex. — Enter not into the path of the wicked, and go 

not in. the wag of evil men. 
Avoid it; pass not by it, turn from if, and 

pass away. 
For they sleep not, except they hare dom mis- 

ch ief. — Bible. 

It will be seen, easily, that the sentence introduced by 
For, is related only in thought to what preoedes. 



230 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



When for is used to join two coordinate members of a 
sentence, they (the members) should be separated by a 
semicolon, if the coordination is close; but if the coordina- 
tion is not very close, they should be separated by a colon. 



Finish your work to-day; for I want you to go a fish- 
ing with me to-morrow. 

This is a compound mixed sentence, consisting of two 
members. 

The first member, Finish your icorh to-day is impera- 
tive. 

The second member, for I want you to go a fishing with 
me to-morrow, is declarative, and it is, also, causal. 

You (understood) is the subject of the first member, 
it is unmodified. 



Finish 



Want 



is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by your work, a complex ob- 
jective word element; wor/c is the 
basis; it is modified by your, a 
simple adjective word element. 

Finish is modified, also, by 
to-day (on to-day) a simple ad- 
verbial phrase element of time. 

is the subject of the second mem- 
ber, unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by you to go a fishing with 
me to-morrow, a complex double 
objective element; you is the di- 
rect object, unmodified, to go a 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 231 

fishing with me to-morrow, is the 
complex attributive object; to go 
is the basis, modified by a fishing, 
a simple adverbial phrase element 
denoting purpose {a is equivalent 
to at). 

To go a fishing is modified by 
with me, a simple adverbial ele- 
ment of accompaniment; and, also, 
by to-morrow, a simple adverbial 
phrase element of time. 

For is a coordinate causal con- 
junction, used to join the two 
members of the compound sen- 
tence. 



EXERCISES UPON COORDINATE CAUSAL CLAUSES. 

1. O give thanks to the Lord of lords; for his mercy 
endureth forever. 

2. For a thousand years in thy sight are but as yester- 
day, when it is past, and as a watch in the night. 

3. Nevertheless, the niece ate, the housekeeper drank, 
and Sancho Panza consoled himself; for legacies tend 
much to moderate the grief that nature claims for the de- 
ceased. 



Emphatic Coordination and Models for Analyzing 
Compound Sentences Made Emphatic by the Use 
op Correlatives and Associate Connectives. 

Copulative coordination is made emphatic by using 
with and the correlative both, and the following assooiates: 



232 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

besides; likewise; moreover; therefore; 
then; further; furthermore; even; 

hence; wherefore also; so now. 

And is often omitted, leaving the associate alone, as 
connective; and sometimes a sentence is introduced by an 
associate connective. 

The use of the associate alone, is very common in the 
Bible, particularly at the beginning of a sentence. 

Ex. — Wherefore, also, we pray always for you, etc. 
Moreover, Job continued his parable, etc. 
Even to-day is my complaint better. 
Therefore they say unto God, Depart from us; 

for we desire not the knowledge of thy 

ways. 

Adversative coordination, with but used to unite 
the members of a sentence, is not emphatic. 

Adversative coordination is made emphatic by using 
the following associate connectives with but : 

however, now, still , yet, notwithstanding, 
nevertheless, etc. 

The associate of the adversative clause is frequently 
used alone, and sometimes introduces a sentence. 

Ex. — Nevertheless my loving kindness will 1 not 
utterly take from him, nor suffer my faith- 
fulness to fail. 

Alternative coordination with or is unemphatic; 
also, with nor; but with them are associated, for emphasis, 
else and otherwise. Emphasis is also given by using the 
correlative either and whether with or, and neither, with 
nor. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 233 

As in the case of copulative and of adversative coordi- 
nation, the associate connective is often used alone; and 
sometimes it is used to introduce a sentence; the correla- 
tive is sometimes used alone also. 

Ex. — I have none, else would I give it. 

Dare to do right, otherwise your conduct will 

be cowardly. 
Neither is there any day's-man betwixt us that 
might lay his hand upon us both. — Bible. 
The topaz of Ethiopia shall not be equal to it, 
neither shall it be valued with pure gold. 

— Bible. 

When coordinate conjunctions, — principal conjunctions, 
as: and, but, or, nor, or the associate connectives are used 
at the beginning of a sentence they indicate no gram- 
matical union, but only coordination in thought. 

Write sentences to illustrate emphatic coordinate con- 
structions. 



He both maintained the family by his labor, and be- 
sides he earned money enough to buy the neat little cottage 
where they live. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of 
two members. 

He both maintained the family by his labor is the first 
member of the sentence; and besides h> earned money 
enough to buy the neat little cottage where they fir,- is the 
second member. 

He is the subject of the first member; it 

is unmodified. 
10* 



234 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Maintained is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by the family, a complex objec- 
tive word element; family is the 
basis, modified by the, a simple ad- 
jective word element. Maintained 
is modified, also, by, by his labor, a 
complex adverbial phrase element, 
denoting manner; by labor is the 
basis; labor is modified by his, a 
simple adjective word element. 

Both is a conjunction; it is a correlative 

of and' it is used to make the coor- 
dination emphatic. 

He is the subject of the second member 

of the sentence; it is unmodified. 

Earned is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by money enough to buy the 
neat little cottage where they live, a 
complex objective word element; 
money is the basis; it is modified by 
enough, to buy the neat little cottage 
ichere they live, a complex adjective 
word element; enough is the basis; 
it is modified by to buy the neat 
little cottage where they live, a com- 
plex adverbial phrase element of 
purpose; to buy is the basis; it is 
modified by the neat little cottage 
where they live, a complex objective 
word element; cottage is the basis; 
it is modified by little, a simple ad- 
jective word element; little cottage 
is modified by neat, a simple adjec- 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 235 

tive word element; neat little cottage 
is modified by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 

Cottage is modified, also, by 
where they live, a simple adjective 
clause element. Where is equivalent 
to in which. 

They is the subject of the subordinate 

clause; it is unmodified. 

Live is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by where, a simple adverbial 
element denoting place. 

The members of the compound 
sentence are connected by and, a 
coordinate copulative conjunction, 
used to join parts of sentences that 
harmonize with each other; the 
coordination is strengthened by the 
associate connective besides' and by 
the correlative both, as seen above. 



In the days of his prosperity, he was a friend to the 
poor and the needy, and shall toe not, tlierefore, aid him 
in the time of his adversity? 

This is a compound mixed sentence. 

The first member, In the days of his prosperity^ he woe 
a friend to the poor and needy, is declarative; the second 
member, and shall we not, therefore, aid hint in the tint, of 
his adversity? is interrogative, a question of appeal. 



236 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

He is the subject of the first member of 

the sentence ; it is unmodified. 

Was friend is the predicate; teas is the cop- 
ula ; friend is the substantive 
attribute, modified by to the poor 
and the needy, a compound adjective 
phrase element; to poor is the basis 
of the first member of the compound 
adjective element; poor is the basis, 
modified by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 

(To) needy is the basis of the 
second member; needy is modified 
by the, a simple adjective word 
element. 

And is a coordinate copulative 
conjunction, used to connect the 
members of the compound phrase 
element. 

Was a friend to the poor and the 
needy, is modified by in the days of 
his prosperity, a complex adverbial 
phrase element denoting time; in 
days is the basis; days is modified 
by the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment; and by of his prosperity, a 
a complex adjective phrase element; 
of prosperity is the basis; prosperity 
is modified by the adjective word 
element, his. 

We is the subject of the second member 

of the sentence; it is unmodified. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 237 

Shall aid is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by him, a simple objective word 
element; and by in the time of his 
adversity, a complex adverbial phrase 
element; in time is the basis; time 
is modified by the, an adjective word 
element, and by of adversity, a simple 
adjective phrase element. The en- 
tire question is modified by not a 
model adverb. 

And is a coordinate, copulative 
conjunction, used to connect the two 
members of the sentence. 

Therefore is an associate connec- 
tive, used with and to make the 
coordination emphatic; it is an illa- 
tive conjunction, showing, or asking 
for, a consequence or conclusion to 
be drawn from the first member. 

MODEL III. 

E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries> 
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two mem- 
bers, which are coordinate; and, as they harmonize, the 
construction is copidative. The conjunction is omitted. 

E'en from the tombs the voice of nature cries, is the first 
member; E'en, in our ashes live their wonted fires, is the 
second member. 

Voice is the simple subject of the first member; it 
is modified by trie, a simple adjeotive word 
element, and by of intture, a simple adjective 
phrase element. 



238 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Cries is the simple predicate. It is modified by 
E^en from the tomb, a complex adverbial 
phrase element of place; from tomb, is the 
basis; it is modified by e'en (even), a simple 
adverbial word element, used with and (un- 
derstood) to make emphatic coordination with 
the preceding propositions. From tomb is 
the basis of the phrase element; tomb is mod- 
ified by the, a simple adjective word element. 

Fives is the simple subject of the second member 
of the compound sentence; it is modified 
by wonted, a simple adjective word element; 
wonted fires is modified by their, a simple 
adjective word element. 

Z/ive is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
E'en in our ashes, a complex adverbial ele- 
ment, denoting place; in our ashes is the 
basis, modified by e'en (even), an adverbial 
word element, used to give intensity to the 
meaning, and, also, with and understood, to 
make emphatic coordination. In ashes is the 
basis of the phrase, ashes is modified by our, 
a simple adjective word element. 

MODEL IV. 

Not only did I iirqe him to leave the country, but I 
also aided him, in every %>ossible way, to do it. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of 
two members. 

Not only did I urge him to leave the country, is the 
first member; and but I also aided him, in every way, to 
do it is the second member. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 239 

I is the subject of the first member; it is 

unmodified. 

Did urge is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
him to leave the country, a double objec- 
tive element; him is the direct object; 
to leave the country is the attributive 
object; to leave is the basis, modified by 
the country, a complex objective word 
element; country is the basis, modified 
by the, a simple adjective word element. 

I is the subject of the second member; it 

is unmodified. 

Aided is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

him, a simple objective word element; 
and by in every possible way, a complex 
adverbial phrase element denoting man- 
ner; in way is the basis; way is modified 
by possible, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment; and possible way is modified by 
every, a simple adjective word element. 
But is here used as a coordinate copula- 
tive conjunction, uniting parts in har- 
mony; also is an associate connective 
of but, used for the sake of emphasis, 
and not only is a correlative of but, used 
for the same purpose. 

model v. 

-£ of the more valuable I of his immense trad of lain! 
he has given you; but still you are not satisfied. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of 
two members. 



240 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



■J of the more valuable -|- of his immense tract of land 
he has given you is the first member; but still you are not 
satisfied is the second member. 

He is the subject of the first member, 

unmodified. 

Has given is the simple predicate, modified 

by 3- of the more valuable \ of 
his immense tract of land, a com- 
plex direct objective word ele- 
ment; •£ is the basis; it is modified 
by of the more valuable £ of his 
immense tract of land, a complex 
adjective phrase element; of \ is 
the basis; it is modified by more 
valuable, a complex adjective word 
element ; valuable is the basis, 
modified by the adverbial element 
more, used to denote the comparative 
degree; more valuable \ is modi- 
fied by the, a simple adjective word 
element; \ is modified, also, by of 
his immense tract of land, a com- 
plex adjective phrase element; of 
tract is the basis; tract is modified 
by immense, a simple adjective word 
element; immense tract is modified 
by his, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

Tract is modified, also, by of 
land, a simple adjective phrase ele- 
ment. 

You is the second member of the com- 

pound sentence, unmodified. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 241 

Are satisfied is the simple predicate; are is the 
copula and satisfied is the verbal 
attribute. The entire member oi' the 
sentence is modified by not, a modal 
negative adverb. 

But is a co5rdinate adversative 
conjunction; still is used with but to 
give emphasis. 

MODEL VI. 

Neither did he see the messenger, nor did he receive the 
telegram. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of 
two members. 

Neither did he see the messenger, is the first member; 
nor did he receive the telegram,\s the second member. 

He is the subject of the first member; it 

is unmodified. 

Did see is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by the messenger, a complex 
objective word element; messenger 
is the basis, modified by the, a simple 
adjective word element. 

He is the subject of the second member; 

it is unmodified. 

Did receive is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by the telegram^ a complex 
objective word element; telegram is 
' the basis, modified by the, a simple 
adjective word element. .V<</' is a 
coordinate alternative conjunction; 
neither is a correlative of nor, used 
lor emphasis. 



242 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



MODEL VII. 

He either will leave to-morrow, or else he will remain <i 
week longer. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of 
two members. 

He either will leave to-morrow,\s the first member; or 
else he will remain a week longer,is the second member. 

He is the subject of the first member;, 

unmodified. 

Will leave is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by (on) to-morrow, a simple 
adverbial phrase element. 

He is the subject of the second member, 

unmodified. 

Will VeWWlilX is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by a iceek longer, a complex 
adverbial word element; longer is 
the basis;, it is modified by (by) a 
week, a complex adverbial phrase 
element of duration of time; (by) 
week is the basis; week is modified 
by a, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. The two members are con- 
nected by or, a coordinate alterna- 
tive conjunction. The coordination 
is made emphatic by the associate 
conjunction else, and by the correla- 
tive either. 



CONDENSED SENTENCES. 243 



CONDENSED OR PARTIALLY COMPOUND 

SENTENCES. 

RULE XIX. 

When a sentence consists of a compound subject and a 
simple predicate, or a simple subject and a co?npound pre- 
dicate, it should be called, in analysis, a partially com- 
pound sentence. 

Language is often made more effective, 
and also more pleasing to the ear, by omit- 
ting parts which are common to the subject 
or to the predicate, or to any of the subor- 
dinate elements. 

Repetitions should always be avoided, unless great 
emphasis is required. 

Abbreviations are so numerous and so various, 
especially in conversation, that it would be difficult to give 
illustrations of all of them. 

The student, however, will not find it difficult to supply 
omissions, if it be necessary to do so, in order to give a 
correct analysis of the sentence. 

Ellipsis, or intentional omission, should be carefully 
distinguished from careless omission, and, also, from the 
abridgment of subordinate propositions. 

Condensed sentences are sometimes railed con- 
tracted compound sentences, sometimes abbreviated Ben- 
tences,but the term commonly used is, partially comp 
sentences. 



244: SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Those sentences only, whose subject, or predicate verb 
is compound, will be treated as partially compound. 

Ex. — The moon and the stars shine by night. 

The lark soars on high, and sings its morning 
song of praise. 

MODEL I. 

And further north, the priest stands at his door in the 
Moarm midnight, and lights his pipe with a common burn- 
ing-glass. — Land of the Midnight Sun. 

This is a contracted (or partially compound) sentence, 
consisting of one subject and two predicates. 

Priest is the simple subject, modified 

by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 

Stdllds and lights is the compound predicate, 
without its modifiers. Stands 
is the first member of the 
compound predicate; it is 
modified by at his door, a 
complex adverbial phrase ele- 
ment of place; at door is the 
basis; door is modified by his, 
a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. Stands is modified 
also by in the warm midnight, 
a complex adverbial phrase 
element, denoting time ; in 
midnight is the basis; mid- 
ii i glit is modified by rearm, 
a simple adjective word ele- 



CONDENSED SENTENCES. 245 

ment; warm midnight is mod- 
ified by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 
JLightS is the second member of the 

compound unmodified predi- 
cate; it is modified by his 
pipe, a complex objective 
word element (direct object); 
pipe is the basis, modified by 
his, a simple adjective word 
element. 

Lights is modified also by 
with a common burning-glass, 
a complex adverbial phrase 
element of manner, denoting 
instrument ; toith burning- 
glass is the basis; burning- 
glass is modified by common, 
a simple adjective word ele- 
ment; co?nmon burning-glass 
is modified by a, a simple 
adjective word element. 

MODEL II. 

^Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 

And robes the mountain in its azure hue. — Campbell. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of 
one principal, and two subordinate propositions. It is 
distance,'^ the principal proposition; {that) lends enchant- 
ment to the view, and (that) robes the mountain in its azure 
hue,&re the two subordinate propositions, which are coor- 
dinate with each other. In the analysis of this sentence it 
is necessary to supply ellipses, it is, for 'tis; and (hat, as 
the subject of each subordinate proposition. 



246 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



It is the simple subject of the principal propo- 

sition; it is modified by (that) lends enchant- 
ment to the view, and (that) robes the moun- 
tain in its azure hue, a compound adjective 
clause element. 

That is the subject of the first subordinate clause; 

it is unmodified. (That is a relative pronoun, 
referring to It as antecedent; It represents 
the thing. 

Leflds is the simple predicate; it is modified by 
enchantment, a simple objective word ele- 
ment, direct object; and by to the view, a 
complex objective phrase element, indirect 
object; to view is the basis; view is modified 
by the. 

That is the subject of the second subordinate 

clause, unmodified. 

Hohes is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

the mountain, a complex objective word 
element; mountain is the basis; it is modi- 
fied by the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. Robes is modified, also, by in its 
azure hue, a complex adverbial phrase ele- 
ment denoting manner; in hue is the basis; 
hue is modified by azure, a simple adjective 
word element; azure hue is modified by its, 
a simple adjective word element. 

The two subordinate clauses are con- 
nected by and. -a coordinate copulative con- 
junction. 



CONDENSED SENTENCES. 247 

EXERCISES UPON CONTRACTED COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

1. Announced by all the trumpets of the sky, 
Arrives the snow; and, driving o'er the fields, 
Seems nowhere to alight. — Emerson. 

2. Of course, all good poetry descriptive of rural life 
is essentially pastoral, or has the effect of the pastoral, on 
the minds of men living in cities. — Rusktn. 

3. The prophet hears it, and leaves his cave. 

— Krummacher 

4. The town of Pompeii was involved in the same 
dreadful catastrophe; but was not discovered till nearly 
forty years after the "discovery of Hereulaneum. 

— Kotzebue. 

5. She stopped where the cool spring bubbled up, 
And filled for him her small tin cup. — Whittier. 

6. And I'd feed the hungry, and clothe the poor. 

— Whittier. 

7. Long at the window he stood, and wistfully gazed at 
the landscape. — Longfellow. 

8. In the fisherman's cot, the wheel and the loom are 
still busy. — Evangeline. 

9. Maidens still wear their Norman caps, and their 

kirtles of homespun, 
And by the evening fire repeat Evangeline's story. 

— EvA\«;r.i .ink. 

10. We forded a stream about four feet deep, and 
reached a sort of cave formed by boulders, where the T in- 
landers wanted to sleep. — Land of tiik Midnight Si n. 

11. The teachers and the pupils went, bul did not re- 
main verv lono-. 



248 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

12. They crossed the bridge, and turned up the stream, 
passing under an arch of stone, which serves as a gateway 
to this enchanted valley of Berkenau. — Hyperion. 

13. Then shall He speak unto them in his wrath, and vex 
them in his sore displeasure. — Bible. 

14. And all the rulers of the provinces, and the lieuten- 
ants, and the deputies and officers of the king, helped the 
Jews. — Bible. 

15. My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle, and are 
spent without hope. — Job. 

16. Governors and kings have little time to rest. 

17. Sorrow and joy are impartial visitors. 

18. She works and waits. 

19. The sun and the moon give us light. 

Let the pupil write original sentences predicating one 
thing of the following compound subjects. 

The sun, moon and stars; 
John and William; 
The boys and the girls; 
The preacher or the people; 
The air, the earth, and the water. 

Write original sentences having simple subjects for the 
following compound predicates: 

Writes and ciphers; plays and sings; studies and 
works; will be given and received; will be prolonged and 
blessed. 



IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 249 



IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. • 

Idiomatic expressions are words, phrases and 
clauses used out of their ordinary signification. 

These peculiar constructions are abundant in the 
English language, to which many of them add beauty and 
strength, but, as they have entered into the language re- 
gardless of the laws of syntax, they will not yield to any 
method of analysis. 

A few of these idiomatic constructions are given and 
the peculiarities pointed out. 

1. I had rather be a dog and bay the moon than 
such a Roman. — Shakespeare. 

In this sentence, it is impossible to show a relation (of 
any kind) of be to had. 

The origin of the expression is not known, but many 
consider it a corruption of would; and it would seem easy 
to change, by rapid utterance, I xoould to I\l, and that 
(I'd) to I had. 

Rather is an adverb, used to denote preference. 

The expressions had rather, had better, had as well, 
are used by the best writers and speakers. 

2. Woe worth the day!— Scott. 

This expression is only a fragment of a sentence; it 
cannot be analyzed. 

Worth is from the antiquated verb iccorlha n , to 
become. 



250 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

The expression means, Let woe be to the day. 

3. I teas going to do it when you came in. 

4. I went to move the table and hurt my hand. 

In the first of the foregoing sentences, I icas going to 
do it, when used idiomatically, means, I teas just about to 
do it, etc. 

When the second sentence is used idiomatically it 
means, I was attempting to move the table, etc. 

As it is impossible to show the relation of the infinitives 
in the sentences, to either going or to went, no satisfactory 
analysis is possible. 

In the ordinary use of the words going and went, the 
infinitive denotes purpose. 

I was going (somewhere) for the purpose, etc. 
I went (somewhere) for the purpose. 

5. HoiV do you do, is another idiomatic expression, 
indispensable in our daily intercourse, but il cannot be 
satisfactorily analyzed. The word do, the last word in the 
expression, refers to the state of health, not to action. 

«?* 

As it has been said, the English language is rich in 

idioms, but they are too numerous to mention. 

A language without idioms would be poor indeed. 

Care should be taken to distinguish between an idiom- 
atic expression and what is termed a slang expression. 



Let the pupil find idiomatic expressions in the Reader, 
or in any other book. 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 251 

MODELS OF ANALYSTS OF SENTENCES WITH 
PECULIAR CONSTRUCTION. 

MODEL I. 

That you have wrongVl me, doth appear 
In this : 

You have condemned and noted Lucius Fella, 
For taking bribes here of the Sardians; 
Wherein my letters, praying on his side, 
Because I knew the man, were slighted off. 

— Shakespeare. 

It is a complex declarative sentence, consisting ol four 
propositions: 

1. That you have wronged me, doth appear in this. 

2. You have condemned and noted Lucius Pella, For 
taking bribes here of the Sardians. 

3. Wherein my letters, praying on his side, were 
slighted off. 

4. Because I knew the man. 

That you have wronged me, doth appear in, this, is the 
principal proposition. 

That you have 

WVOlig'tl Hie is a substantive clause, used as 

the subject of the principal 
proposition. 

That is used simply to intro- 
duce the clause; it is not here a 
connective. 

As subject, it should be dis- 
posed oi' as a noun, in the third 
person, singular number, neuter 



252 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

gender, and in the nominative 
case, subject of doth appear. 
In analysis it may be resolved 
into its component parts. 
You is the subject; it is unmodified. 

Have ivrotig'd is the simple predicate; it is 

modified by me, a simple ob- 
jective word element (direct 
object). 

Doth appear is the simple predicate of the 

principal proposition; it is mod- 
fied by in this: You have con- 
demned and noted Lucius Pella, 
and all that follows, a complex 
adverbial phrase element; in 
this is the basis; this is modified 
by the four lines following, — a 
complex adjective clause ele- 
ment, by apposition. 

You is the subject of the first sub- 

ordinate proposition; it is not 
modified. 

Have condemned 

and noted is the compound predicate; it is 

modified by Lucius Pella, a 
simple objective word element. 
Have condemned and noted 
Lucius Pella, is modified by 
For taking bribes here of the 
Sardians, a complex adverbial 
phrase element, denoting a 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 253 

cause or reason; For talcing is 
the basis {taking is a present 
active participle, used as a noun 
in the objective after For, but 
modified as a verb); taking is 
modified by bribes, a simple ob- 
jective word element (direct 
object), and by of the Sardians, 
a complex objective phrase ele- 
ment (indirect object); taking 
is modified also by here, a sim- 
ple adverbial element of place. 
The entire expression, You have 
condemned and noted Lucius 
Fella, For taking bribes here of 
the Sardians, is modified by 
Wherein my letters, praying on 
his side, Because I knew the 
man, were slighted off, a com- 
plex adjective clause element. 
Wherein is a relative adverb, 
equivalent to concerning which, 
and relates to what is in the two 
lines preceding. 

Lettevs is the simple subject; it is mod- 

ified by mi/, a simple adjective 
word element; and by praying 
on his side, Because I kneto the 
man, a complex adjective word 
element, participial construc- 
tion ; praying is the !m>is; it is 
modified by <>// his side, ;< com- 
plex adverbial phrase element 



254 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



place; on side is the basis; side 
is modified by his, a simple 
adjective word element. 

Praying on //is side is mod- 
ified by Because I knew the 
man, an adverbial clause ele- 
ment, denoting a cause or a 
reason. 



I 

Knew 



is the subject, unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by the man, a complex 
objective word element (direct 
object); man is the basis; it is 
modified by the, a simple adjec- 
tive word element. 



Were slighted off 



is the predicate; it is that which 
is affirmed of lettersj it is un- 
modified. 

The predicate consists of the 
copula were, and the verbal at- 
tribute, slighted off. Were 
slighted off is a compound verb. 
Off should not be separated 
from the verb, in analysis or in 
parsing. 

Because is a causal conjunc- 
tion, used as a connective, to 
join the subordinate clause to 
the element which it modifies. 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 






MODEL II. 

The performance vms not worth 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 

Performance is the simple subject; it is modi- 
fied by the, a simple adjective 
word element. 



Was ivortJi 



is the simple predicate; was is the 
copula, and worth is the adjective 
attribute. • Worth is modified by 
seeing (a participial noun) an indi- 
rect objective element. 



Note. — Worth is followed by an indirect object, with 
no preposition expressed when it (worth) is used as an 
adjective. 



MODEL III. 

On my honor, I have told you all. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 
I is the subject, unmodified. 



Have told 



On my honor 



is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by all, a simple direct objec- 
tive word element; and by ;/<>>', a 
simple objective phrase element, 
indirect object. 

is used by way of asseveration, to 
give emphasis to the expression. 



256 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



MODEL IV. 

For he saith to the snoio, Be thou on the earth; likewise 
to the small rain y and to the great rain of his strength. — 
Bible. 

This is a complex mixed sentence; the principal prop- 
osition is declarative; the subordinate proposition is imper- 
ative. 

He saith to the snow, likewise to the small rain, and to 
the great rain of his strength is the principal proposition. 

Be thou on the earth is the subordinate proposition, 
though it is really the leading thought; it is subordinate, 
only because it is a direct quotation. 

He is the subject of the principal proposition, 

unmodified. 

Sditll is the simple predicate; it is modified by Be 
thou on the earth, a simple direct objective 
clause element. 

TllOil is the subject, unmodified. 



He is the simple predicate; it is used to denote 

existence; it is modified by on the earth, a 
complex adverbial phrase element denoting 
place; on earth is the basis; earth is modified 
by the, a simple adjective word element. 
Saith is modified also by to the snow, likewise 
to the small rain, and to the great rain of his 
strength, a compound objective phrase ele- 
ment; to the snow is the first member; to stiow 
is the basis; snow is modified by the. Bike- 
wise to the small rain is the second member; 
to rain is the basis; rain is modified by small > 



MODELS FOli ANALYSIS. 257 

a simple adjective word element. Small rain 
is modified by the, a simple adjective word 
element. The second member of the phrase 
element is connected to the first by likewise, 
generally used as an associate of and, but 
here it may be regarded as a real connective 
(coordinate copulative conjunction), though 
and may be supplied. 

And to the great rain of his strength is 
the third member of the objective phrase ele- 
ment, joined to the second by the coordinate 
copulative conjunction and; to rain is the 
basis; rain is modified by great, a simple 
adjective word element; great rain is modi- 
fied by the, a simple adjective word element; 
rain, is modified also by of his strength, a 
complex adjective phrase element. 

Be thou on the earth is the prominent 
thought in the sentence, and is subordinate 
in construction, only because it is direct quo- 
tation, a part of what was said. 



Long Indian canes, with iron tipped they bear, 

And upon steeds so nimbi;/ sweep "long, 

You'd say a whirlwind blew them past. — Tasso. 

This is a complex sentence; the principal proposition is 
partially compound, containing one subject and two predi- 
cate verbs. 

Long Indian canes, with iron tipped they bear, I I 
upon steeds so nimbly sweep along, is the principal propo- 
sition. 

S 11* 



258 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



You'd say a whirlwind blew them past, is the subordi- 
nate complex proposition. 



They 



Bear 



Sweep along 



is the subject of the principal propo- 
sition, unmodified. 

is the first member of the compound 
predicate; it is modified by Long 
Indian canes, toith iron tipped, a 
complex objective word element. 
Canes is the basis, modified by 
Indian, a simple adjective word 
element; Indian canes is modified 
by Long, a simple adjective ele- 
ment. Canes is modified, also, by 
with iron tipped, a complex adjective 
word element, participial construc- 
tion; tipped is the basis, modified by 
toith iron, a simple adverbial phrase 
element of manner. 

is the second member of the com- 
pound predicate. (Along is a prepo- 
sition usually, but it enters into and 
changes the meaning' of the verb 
sweep so materially that with it 
(sioeep), it forms a compound verb. 

Sweep along is modified by upon 
steeds, a simple adverbial phrase ele- 
ment of manner, and by so nimbly, 
a complex adverbial word element 
denoting manner; nimbly is the 
basis, modified by so, a simple ad- 
verbial word element of degree. 



MODELS FOB ANALYSIS. 

Nimbly is modified, also, by 
YoiCd say a whirlwind blew them 
past, a complex adverbial clause 
element denoting consequence. 

That should be supplied before 
you, and before a whirlwind^ — Thai 
you would say that a whirlwind blew 
them past 

You is the subject of the first subordi- 

nate proposition, unmodified. 

Would say is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by that a whirlwind blew them 
past, a simple objective clause ele- 
ment. 



W/lirlwind is the simple subject of the objective 
clause, modified by a, a simple ad- 
jective word element. 

Slew is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by them, a simple objective word 
element; and by past, a simple ad- 
verbial word element. 

/So is not only an adverb of 
degree, but is also a correlative of 
that, the subordinate conjunct inn 
(understood) connecting the clause 
element to the adverb nimbi;/. 

That is understood also, before 
the last clause. 



260 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



MODEL VI. 



Then methought the air greto denser, perf timed from an 

unseen censer, 
Swung by angels, whose faint footfalls tinkled on the tufted 

floor. — Poe. 

This is a, complex declarative sentence. The subject is 
a clause, which contains another clause used as a modifier. 

Then methought (that understood) the air grew denser, 
perfumed from an unseen censer, swung by angels, is the 
principal proposition ; whose faint footfalls tinkled on the 
tufted floor, is the subordinate proposition. 

That the air grew denser, perfumed from 
an unseen censer „ 

Swung by angels, is the simple subject. 

Thought is the simple predicate; it 

is modified by to me, an in- 
direct objective phrase ele- 
ment. 

Thought, in methought, 
is derived from thincan, to 
seem, to appear, and not 
from thencan, to think. 

Air is the simple subject of the 

substantive clause subject; 
it is modified by the, a 
simple adjective word ele- 
ment, and by perfumed 

from an unseen censer, 
swung by angels, whose 

faint footfalls tinkled on 



MODELS FOli ANALYSIS. WL 

the tufted floor, a complex 
adjective word element, 
participial construction. 

Perfumed is the basis; 
it is modified by from an 
unseen censer, swung by 
angels, whose faint footfalls 
tinkled on the tufted floor, 
a complex adverbial phrase 
element denoting place; 
from censer is the basis; 
censer is modified by uu- 
seeti, a simple adjective 
word element; unseen cai- 
ser is modified by "//, a 
simple adjective word ele- 
ment. Censer is modified, 
also, by swung by angels, 
whose faint footfalls tinkled 
on the tufted floor, a com- 
plex adjective word ele- 
ment, participial construc- 
tion. Strung is the basis; 
it is modified by, by angAh 

whose faint footfalls tinkled 
on trie tufted floor, a com- 
plex adverbial phrase ele- 
ment denoting agency; by 
angels is the basis; angeh 
is modified by whom faint 
footfalls tinklt d <>n the 
tufted floor, a Bimple adjeo- 
tive clause element 



262 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



Footfalls 



Tinkled 



Grew denser 



is the simple subject of the 
subordinate clause; it is 
modified by faint, a simple 
adjective word element; 
faint footfalls is modified 
by whose, a simple adjective 
word element. 

is the simple predicate; it is 
modified by on the tufted 
floor, a complex adverbial 
phrase element, of place; on 
floor is the basis; floor is 
modified by tufted, a simple 
adjective word element. 

is the predicate of the 
clause used as subject (it 
is predicated of air). 

Grew is a copulative 
verb, used to connect the 
adjective attribute denser to 
the subject air. 



EXERCISES ON SENTENCES CONTAINING METHINKS. 

1. Methinks that the stars look down pityingly upon 
this scene of sorrow. 

2. Methought there was a proclamation made by Jupiter, 
that every mortal should bring in his griefs and calamities, 
and throw them together in a heap. — Addison. 

3. And methought that the light-house looked lovely as 

as Hope, 
That Star on life's tremulous ocean. 

— MOORE. 



MODELS FOU ANALYSIS. 263 

MODEL VII. 

From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder. — Byron. 

This sentence is transposed, for rhetorical effect; the 
elements are inverted or placed but of their natural order. 

It is a simple declarative sentence. 

The live thunder leaps among Ihe crags, from peak to 
peak, is the natural order of arrangement. 

Thunder is the simple subject; it is limited by 
live, a simple adjective word element; 
live thunder is limited by the, a simple 
adjective word element. 

LecipS is the simple predicate; it is modified by 

"mong the crags, a eomplex adverbial 
phrase element, denoting place; among 
crags is the basis; crags is modified by 
the,' an adjective word element. Leaps 
is modified also by from peak to peak, a 
complex adverbial phrase element, of 
manner, showing how the thunder leaps 
among the crags; and it also refers to 
place. From }><><ik is the basis; it i-s 
moililied by to peak, a simple adverbial 
phrase element. 

Modiol for Analyzing; a Complex Interrogative 
Sentence. 

Who laid the cornerstone thereof; 
When the morning-stars sang together, 
and all the sons of God shouted for joyt 

This is a complex interrogative sentenoe, consisting of 
three propositions, one principal and two subordinate 
propositions. 



264 



SYNTAX AXD ANALYSIS. 



Who laid the corner-stone thereof, is the principal 
proposition; When the morning -stars sang together is the 
first subordinate proposition; (when) all the sons of God 
shouted for joy is the second! 

The two subordinate propositions are coordinate with 
each other. 



^^Jlo 



Laid 



Morning-stars 



Sang 



is the subject of 
proposition; it is 



the principal 
also an inter- 
rogative pronoun, used to inquire 
for an antecedent, which is found 
in the answer; it is unmodified. 

is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by the corner-stone thereof 
a complex objective word element; 
corner-stone is the basis; it is 
modified by thereof, a simple ad- 
jective word element, equivalent 
to of it. Laid the corner-stone 
thereof is modified by When the 
morning-stars sang together, and 
(when) all the sons of God shouted 
for joy, a compound adverbial 
clause element denoting time sim- 
ultaneous. The two clauses are 
connected by the coordinate copu- 
lative conjunction and. 

is the simple subject (it is a com- 
pound word); it is modified by 
the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment. 

is the simple predicate; it is modi- 
fied by together, a simple adjective 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 365 

word element, denoting accompa- 
niment; and by when, an adverbial 
word element, denoting time. 

SOUS is the simple subject of the second 

member of the compound subor- 
dinate clause element; it is modi- 
fied by the, a simple adjective 
word element; the sons is modified 
by all, a simple adjective word 
element; sons is modified, also, by 
of God, a simple adjective phrase 
element. 

Shouted, is the simple predicate; it is modi- 

fied by for } 01/ , a simple adverbial 
phrase element denoting the cause 
or reason. 

Model for Outline Analysis. 



Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit 

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 

Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 

Restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 

Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top 

Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire 

That shepherd, who first taught the hi avenly s, , -/, 

In the beginning how the heavens and earth 

Hose out of chaos: 

This is the first member of the compound sentenoe 
which is the opening sentence of Paradise Lost; but it will 
be disposed of as one entire sentence. 
12 



266 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



It is a complex imperative sentence; the following is 
the natural otder of arrangement: 

1. Heavenly Muse, Independent by address. 

2. That on the secret 

top of Oreb or of 
Sinai didst in- 
spire that shep- 
herd. Basis of the complex adjec • 
tive clause element which 
modifies Muse; this ele- 
ment contains three clauses. 



Who first taught 
the heavenly 
seed, In the 
beginning 



is the subordinate adjective 
clause, used to limit shep- 
herd; it is a complex adjec- 
tive clause; taught is modi- 
fied by How the heavens 
and earth Rose out of chaos, 
an objective clause element. 



All sfiven above is independent by direct address. It 
has no grammatical relation, whatever, to the sentence, 
though closely connected in thought. 



4. Thou (understood) 



Subject. 



5. Sing 



Predicate Verb 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 267 

6. Of Man's first dis- 

obedience and 
the fruit of the 

forbidden tree, Basis of the complex objec- 

tive phrase element. 

7. Wliose mortal taste 
brought death into 

the world, with loss 

of Eden, Adjective clause element, 

used to modify fruit. 

With loss of Eden, 
an adverbial element of 
accompaniment. 

8. Till one greater man 
restore us and regain 

the blissful seat. Compound adverbial ele- 

ment of time. 



MODEL II. 

At summer eve, when Heaven's ethereal bow 
Spans loith bright arch the glittering hills below, 
Why to yon mountain turn* the musing eye, 
Whose sunbright summit mingles with the sky? 

It is a complex interrogative sentence. It is an invert d 

sentence. The following is the natural order of arrange- 
ment. 

Whff Interrogative adverb, used 

to ask for a cause or reason. 

The musing eye Subject with modifiers. 

TlirnS Simple predicate. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 



To yon mountain 
whose sunbright 
summit mingles 
with the sky, 



Adverbial phrase element 
denoting direction, com- 
plex; modifying turns. 



Whose sunbright 

summit mingles with 

the sky, 



Subordinate adjective clause 
element, modifying moun- 
tain and forming a part of 
the complex adverbial phrase 
element of direction. 



At summer eve 



Adverbial phrase element of 
time, modifying turns. 



When Heaven's 

ethereal bow spans 

with bright arch the 

glittering hills below 



Below 



A complex adjective clause 
element (when is equivalent 
to at which time), used to 
modify eve. 

is an adjective element, be- 
longing to hills, equivalent 
to which are below it. 



EXERCISES. 



EXERCISES FOR PUPILS. 

Construct five sentences, arrange the words in natural 
order, then change to the inverted order. 

Find inverted sentences in a Reader, and arrange the 
words in natural order. 

Let the pupils arrange the words in the following sen- 
tences, in their natural order, and then analyze the sen- 
tences: 

EXERCISES. 

1. Far down the Beautiful River, 
Past the' Ohio shore, and past the mouth of the 

Wabash, 

Into the golden stream, of the broad, and swift Mis- 
sissippi, 

Floated a cumbrous boat, that was rowed by x\cadian 
boatmen. — Longfellow. 

2. As boys on ivied towers and haunted rooms 
At fall of twilight dare not cast an eye, 
Fancy a ghost in everything that glooms, 
And, hair on end, from the grim fancy fly; 
So when beyond the hills these men descry 

The hoar wood nodding to the winds light wings, 
Alarmed, they turn and flee. — TASSO. 

3. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered 

weak and weary, 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten 

love, 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there 

came a tapping. — POB. 



270 SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

4. When thoughts 

Of the last bitter hour come like a blight, 
Over thy spirit, and sad images 
Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, 
And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, 
Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart, 
Go forth, under the open sky, and list 
To Nature's teaching. — Bryant. 



Model for Analyzing Exclamatory Sentences. 

How beautiful teas the hour of midnight! 

— Land of the Midnight Sun. 

This is a simple exclamatory sentence; it is expressive 
of strong admiration. 

Hour is the simple subject, modified by 

the, a simple adjective word ele- 
ment, and by of midnight, a 
simple adjective phrase element. 

Was beautiful is the simple predicate; was is the 
copula; and beautiful is the adjec- 
tive attribute. The attribute, 
beautiful, is modified by how, a 
simple adverbial word element of 
degree, used also to indicate 
emotion. 

exercises upon exclamatory sentences. 

1. O solitude! where are the charms that sages have 
seen in thy face! 

2. What a delightful day! 

3. Oh had I known it sooner! 



EXERCISES. ■> 1 ] 

4. Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness! 

5. Alas, what have I done! 

6. How drowsy was the landscape! 

7. Alas for him who never sees 

The stars shine through his cypress trees! 

— Whittier. 

8. Boys, a path! — Whittier. 

9. Therefore accomplish thy labor of love till the heart 

is made Godlike, 
Purified, strengthened, perfected, and rendered more 
worthy of Heaven! — Longfellow. 

10 Ah well! for us all some sweet hope lies. 

Deeply buried from human eyes. 

11. And, in the hereafter, angels may 
Roll the stone from its grave away! 

— Whittier. 

12. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of 
him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace! 

— Bible. 



INDEX. 



PAGK. 

A or an 36 

A fishing 230 

Abridged propositions 191 

participial constructions 192-203 

infinitive constructions 204 

Adjective 38 

pronominal, 38, 39 

numeral 39, 41 

qualifying 41, 43 

Adjective element 34 

word 34-54 

phrase 56 

clause 116-123 

Adverbs. ? 1 

time 72 

place 72 

cause, 73 

manner 73 

Advei hial element 71 

word 71-80 

phrase 81, 90 

clause .136-191 

Adversative conjunctions 221 

Ago 78 

Alternative conjunctions, 226 

Along 85 

Analysis 19 

And 209 

Apposition 48, 49, 123 

Appeal,.. 90 

As, adverb of degree 163 

conjunction 136, 156 

relative pronoun 108 

Asseveration 90, 255 

At, 85 

Attribute, word 21-25 

phrase 27-30 

clause 101 

Bad, badly 33 

Be, uses of the verb, 19 

to denote existence 20-21 

as copula 21-25 

Both, conjunction 233 

But, conjunction 209 

preposition 128, 147 

relative pronoun 108, 109 

Causal clause and causal coordina- 
tion 150, 229 

Clause element.. 97 

Complex sentences 105 

Compound sentences 209-242 

Condensed sentences 243- 24 s 

Conjunctions, co-ordinate, .20 \ 231, 232 

Copula 21-25 

Copulative verbs 30, 34, 64 

Copulative conjunctions 209 

Coi relatives 110 

Comparison of equality 1 52 

negative equality 152 

inequality 155 

Declarative sentence 15 

Definite article 36 

Discourse 129 

direct 129 

indirect 129 

During 82 

Either 39, 226 

Elements 12, 14 

Else 227, 227 

Even 237 

Exclamatory sentence 16-17 



PAGE. 

Expletive 78, 79 

False Syntax 9 

For, preposition 82. 83 

subordinate conjunction 159 

co-ordinate conjunction. 209. 211, 229 

Had rather 249 

Harmony 209, 210 

Id iomatic constructions 249, 250 

111 74 

Illative clause 235, 237 

Imperative sentence 16 

In, into 85 

Indefinite article 36 

Infinitives 29, 56, 86 - 90 

present and perfect, when to be 

used 205 

special uses 204 

Interrogative sentences 16, 206 

Intransitive verbs 59 

It, expletive 99 

Like 78, 79 

Many a 37 

Metb ought 250 

Modal adverbs 75,76, 77 

Mixed sentence 17 

Neither 39, 226 

Nor 226, 229 

Not 77. 185 

Not only 210. 238 

Numerals 79 

Oath 90 

Objective element 56 

direct object 57 

indirect object 60-63 

double object 64-67 

objective clause 127 

or, otherwise 226, 227 

ought 47 

Participles 43, 47 

Phrase 27. 55 

Possfssives 50-53 

Predicate 10-11 

Proposition 9 

Quotations . 129 

Relative Adverbs 118-123 

Relative pronouns 106-118 

Rules of Analysis 94 96 

Rules of Syntax 92-94 

Sentence, defined 

simple 17 

complex 105 

compound 209 

Subject 10-11,98, 104 

Syntax 9 

Than 163 

That, conjunction 129. 130 

pronominal adjective 38 

relative pronoun 107 

The, definite article 37 

The the 176 

There 78 113 

Thought, a 9 

To. toward, towards Si 

Transitive verb 57. 5, 

Voice 51 

Well 74 

Wh at 108 

Whence 152 

Whether 227 

Whither 152 

Worth 249, 255 



LIBRARY OF CONCRESS 
Illllllll 



I" li Bill II III 1 il 
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